GIFT  OF 
Agricultural  Educ. 


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HOW  TO  TEACH 
THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

•     •  ••      • 

BY 

NELLIE  COOPER 

PRIMARY    SUPERVISOR 

EAST    TENNESSEE    STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL 

JOHNSON  CITY,  TENNESSEE 


1924 

A.  FLANAGAN  COMPANY 

CHICAGO 


LB 


- '  •  -  '     •  * 
COPYRIGHT,   1920,  BY  A.   FLANAGAN  COMPANY 


PRINTED   IN    THE   UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  number  of  years' 
experience  in  helping  prepare  teachers  for  work  in  pri- 
mary grades. 

After  a  brief  discussion  of  the  aim  of  education  and 
certain  of  the  underlying  principles  which  run  through 
all  the  work,  the  author  attempts  to  show  how  these 
principles  may  be  worked  out  in  practice  in  the  primary 
grades. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  discuss  each  subject  in 
a  practical  and  scientific  way  followed  by  concrete  appli- 
cation. Each  step  in  the  plan  work  has  for  its  basis 
the  principles  of  psychology  which  apply  to  the  child 
mind.  Each  of  the  many  plans  given  has  been  tried  out 
again  and  again  in  actual  schoolroom  practice. 

The  obligations  of  the  author  are  too  numerous  to 
mention.  Where  direct  quotations  have  been  used,  due 
acknowledgment  has  been  made;  but  it  was  impossible 
to  acknowledge  many  of  the  minor  points  used  in  the 
book,  as  these  were  often  taken  unconsciously  from 
books  and  magazines.  The  author  has  read  every  book 
and  article  bearing  on  the  subject  that  was  accessible. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  of  the  assistance  given  by 
the  colleagues  of  the  author;  namely,  Dean  Hodge 
Mathes,  President  Sidney  G.  Gilbreath,  Miss  Katherine 
McSpadden,  Miss  Tompsie  Baxter,  Prof.  F.  W-.  Alex- 
ander, Prof.  D.  S.  Burleson,  Prof.  Max  Schoen,  Prof. 
W.  B.  Coggin,  Miss  Ina  Yoakley,  Prof.  C.  E.  Rogers, 
Supt.  Riley  Haworth,  and  Miss  Pearl  Bennett. 

Nellie  Cooper 
Johnson  City,  Tenn. 

675232 


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A    MODERN    PRIMARY    ROOM 

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Denominate  number  cabinet 

Weaving  mats 

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CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  Aims  and  Principles  Underlying  Primary 

Education 7 

II     Lesson  Types  in  Primary  Grades 21 

III  The  Lesson  Plan  in  Primary  Grades.  ...   30 

IV  Reading 38 

V  Pre-Primer  Work  (Reading  Continued)  .   51 

VI     The  Drill  Lesson 70 

VII     Ppionics  (Reading  Continued) 77 

VIII  The  Study  Lesson  (Reading  Continued)  .  95 

IX  The  Recitation  (Reading  Continued)  . . .  106 

X     Language 123 

XI     Language  (Continued)    136 

XII     Literature   1 48 

XIII  Literature  (Continued)   164 

XIV  Arithmetic 178 

XV    Arithmetic   (Continued)    193 

XVI     Handwriting  207 

XVII     Spelling    223 

XVIII  History,  Nature  Study,  and  Geography.  .237 

XIX  History,   Nature  Study,  and  Geography 

(Continued)    257 

XX     Handwork    270 

XXI     Music 285 

XXII     Seat  Work 295 

XXIII     Opening  Exercises 301 


HOW  TO  TEACH  THE   PRIMARY 
GRADES 

CHAPTER  I 

AIMS  AND  PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING 
PRIMARY   EDUCATION 

AIMS 

General  Aim.  In  beginning  the  study  of  the  educa- 
tional process  as  it  applies  directly  to  the  primary  grades 
it  will  prove  an  economy  of  time  and  effort  if  the  desired 
end  to  be  attained  is  considered.  Among  the  important 
educational  aims  which  have  been  pointed  out  are  culture, 
knowledge,  harmonious  development,  utility,  and  the 
social  aims.  Of  these  the  social  is  now  accepted  as  the 
standard.  The  predominating  purpose  of  this  aim  is  to 
make  the  individual  socially  efficient;  that  is,  to  develop 
and  to  train  such  of  his  faculties  and  capacities  as  will 
enable  him  to  accomplish  his  best  work  in  the  world. 

Special  Aims.  An  analysis  of  this  general  aim  will 
reveal  that  it  is  made  up  of  a  great  number  of  minor 
aims. 

1.  The  first  of  these  minor  aims  to  be  considered  is 
that  of  the  proper  development  of  the  body.  It  is  an 
established  fact  that  the  body  has  a  marked  influence 
over  the  mind.     Too  often,  the  laggard  in  the  class  is 

7 


8  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

the  poorly-nourished  and  poorly-developed  child.  It  is 
found,  also,  that  the  well-nourished  and  well-developed 
child  receives  impressions  with  more  ease  and  retains 
them  longer;  is  better  able  to  analyze  and  classify  these 
impressions;  and  is  more  likely  to  make  use  of  them 
in  daily  life. 

Not  only  does  the  well-developed  body  help  the  mental 
powers  involved  in  the  learning  process,  but  it  helps  to 
make  living  a  thing  of  joy.  The  healthy  individual  rises 
eacb  morning  with  a  song  in  his  heart  and  goes  joyfully 
through  the  duties  of  the  day. 

A  well-developed  body  is  the  result  of  proper  food, 
proper  exercise,  and  fresh  air.  Not  only  should  the 
teacher  see  that  these  conditions  prevail  in  the  child's 
school  life,  but  she  should  make  suggestions  regarding 
suitable  conditions  for  the  home  life.  Proper  exercise 
may  be  secured  through  work,  play,  rhythmic  gymnastics, 
and  exercises  for  correct  breathing. 

2.  A  closely  allied  aim  is  that  of  training  the  child 
to  rational  observance  of  the  laws  of  health.  Medical 
science  teaches  that  all  the  ills  of  the  body  except  acci- 
dents may  be  traced  to  disregard  for  certain  of  these 
laws.  It  should  be  a  vital  part  of  the  child's  education 
to  train  him  to  obey  these  laws.  This  training  may  be 
given  through  the  use  of  stories,  pictures,  talks,  and 
games. 

3.  Another  aim  is  to  establish  certain  desirable  habits; 
namely,  intelligent  curiosity;  clear,  systematic  thinking; 
self-reliance  in  the  solution  of  problems ;  organizing 
knowledge;  judging  values;  taking  the  initiative;  and 
certain  social  habits. 

a.  Intelligent  curiosity  is  a  desire  to  know  about 
things  which  are  worth  while.     Curiosity  is  the  mother 


Aims  and  Principles 


of  all  knowledge,  inasmuch  as  a  desire  to  know  is  a  pre- 
requisite to  the  gaining  of  knowledge.  Curiosity  may  be 
awakened  by  the  use  of  questions,  stories,  pictures,  and 
objects. 

b.  The  ability  to  think  clearly  and  systematically  is 
largely  a  habit — a  habit  due  to  training.  Practically 
every  school  activity  should  be  utilized  in  establishing 
this  very  desirable  habit. 

c.  The  habit  of  self-reliance  in  the  discovery  of 
problems  and  in  the  solving  of  these  is  of  such  impor- 
tance as  to  command  the  individual  attention  of  every 
teacher.  Many  people  go  through  life  without  realizing 
that  its  daily  activities  are  full  of  vital  problems  which 
should  be  solved.  The  mental  life  grows  and  develops 
through  the  solving  of  these  many  problems. 

d.  Closely  connected  with  the  habit  of  self-reliance 
are  the  habits  of  organizing  knowledge  and  of  judging 
values.  In  the  old  type  of  school  the  child  was  taught 
facts,  and  there  the  matter  rested.  But  the  teacher  of 
the  present  day  realizes  that  if  the  knowledge  gained  is 
to  be  translated  into  terms  of  daily  life,  the  child  must 
be  trained  to  judge  its  value,  and  then  to  organize  it  in 
a  systematic  way.  If  the  average  child  is  to  have  this 
ability,  it  must  be  the  result  of  definite  training — a  train- 
ing which  may  be  accomplished  through  the  ordinary 
schoolroom  activities. 

e.  The  development  of  the  capacity  for  taking  the 
initiative  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  child's  training. 
By  initiative  is  meant  the  power  to  work  out  things  for 
oneself  rather  than  to  depend  on  others.  This  is  a 
quality  that  develops  into  leadership  in  both  thought  and 
action.  While  it  is  doubtless  true  that  there  are  a  few 
persons  who  do  not  possess  the  germ  of  this  capacity, 


10  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

it  is  also  true  that  the  greater  number  possess  it  in  a 
varying  degree.  It  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  dis- 
cover and  develop  it  by  making  use  of  every  opportunity 
which  the  school  activities  offer. 

f.  If  a  person  is  to  accomplish  his  best  work  in  the 
world  he  should  be  trained  to  the  social  habits  of  thought- 
fulness,  co-operation,  honesty,  promptness,  industry,  obe- 
dience, and  patriotism.  These  habits  may  be  established 
in  part  by  the  use  of  stories  and  ethical  talks. 

4.  Many  people  lose  much  of  the  beauty  and  happi- 
ness of  life  because  they  have  not  been  trained  to  sec 
the  wonders  in  nature  and  in  the  industrial  life  of  the 
world.  One  of  the  teacher's  aims  should  be  to  develop 
within  the  child  the  "seeing  eye"  and  the  "understanding 
mind"  for  all  the  world  of  nature  and  of  commerce.  This 
may  be  accomplished  through  the  regular  lessons  in 
nature  study,  social  life,  and  literature. 

5.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  develop  within  each 
child  the  ability  to  gain  knowledge  and  pleasure  through 
reading.  The  choice  of  literature  which  is  to  be  read 
and  the  habit  of  translating  the  thought  gained  into  terms 
of  daily  life  are  matters  of  training — a  training  for  which 
the  teacher  must  usually  assume  the  entire  responsibility. 
Consequently,  she  should  definitely  plan  to  direct  into 
worthy  channels  the  child's  growing  ability  to  read. 

6.  The  outward  expression  of  thought  or  emotions  is 
an  instinct  which  should  be  developed  to  its  fullest  by 
training  the  child  to  forceful  expression  through  as  many 
different  channels  as  possible ;  namely,  through  spoken 
and  written  language,  music,  manual  arts,  fine  arts,  and 
dramatic  action. 

7.  The  capacity  for  appreciation  is  one  which  adds 
very  materially  to  the  joy  of  living.    As  this  is  a  capacity 


Aims  and  Principles  11 

which  is  very  susceptible  to  training,  it  is  essential  that ' 
the  teacher  plan  definitely  for  its  proper  development. 
The  child  should  be  trained  to  appreciate  the  truly  humor- 
ous, the  beautiful,  and  the  noble  qualities  in  human  nature 
and  in  the  social  relations  of  life.  Abundant  material 
for  this  training  will  be  found  in  literature,  nature  study, 
social  life,  and  history. 

8.  Growth  in  the  moral,  the  mental,  or  the  industrial 
life  is  largely  the  result  of  an  ideal  or  goal  which  a  person 
desires  to  attain.  The  person  who  has  no  ideal  or  goal 
accomplishes  very  little,  since  he  has  nothing  to  work 
toward.  The  teacher  should  help  the  child  to  establish 
definite  childlike  ideals  of  conduct,  of  study,  and  of 
industry.  These  ideals  may  be  found  in  the  social  world 
round  about,  in  literature,  and  in  history. 

9.  A  careful  examination  of  these  minor  aims  will 
reveal  that  the  trend  or  leading  thought  is  that  of  pre- 
paring the  child  for  social  service.  It  is  becoming  evi- 
dent that  his  attitude  toward  his  fellowman  is  largely 
due  to  training — that  he  will  be  either  selfish  or  unself- 
ish according  to  this  training. 

This  thought  should  be  constantly  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher  and  she  should  plan  to  develop  within  the  child 
ideals  of  service  to  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  relatives, 
friends,  and  playmates.  These  ideals  should  govern  prac- 
tically all  his  school  activities  as  well  as  those  of  his 
home  life.  He  should  be  trained  to  compete  honorably 
with  his  neighbor,  but  the  emphasis  should  be  on  the 
training  which  will  enable  him  to  work  for  the  good 
of  the  group.  He  should  be  taught  also  to  consider 
the  results  of  his  actions. 

Numerous  opportunities  are  to  be  found  in  the  daily 
routine  of  every  schoolroom  for  training  in  co-operation 


12  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

v  and  service,  but  too  often  these  natural  opportunties  are 
overlooked,  and  the  child  is  trained  only  to  the  habit  of 
striving  to  outrank  his  classmate  rather  than  to  serve  him. 

The  teacher  should  aim  not  only  to  develop  the  de- 
sirable traits  and  tendencies  but  also  to  inhibit  certain 
undesirable  ones.  Any  trait  or  tendency  whose  develop- 
ment would  be  harmful  to  the  group  should  be  inhibited. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  truly  successful  teacher  should 
be  a  close  student  of  the  child-mind  from  both  a  theoret- 
ical and  a  practical  standpoint. 

PRINCIPLES 

Through  a  scientific  study  of  the  learning  process,  it 
has  been  found  that  there  are  certain  laws  or  principles 
by  which  knowledge  or  skill  is  acquired.  A  practical 
study  of  these  laws  or  principles  and  of  their  application 
should  enable  the  teacher  materially  to  lighten  her  work. 
It  should  also  result  in  a  great  saving  of  time  and  energy 
for  the  child. 

1.  One  of  these  laws  is  that  known  as  Sense  Percep- 
tion; namely,  that  no  knowledge  enters  the  mind  unless 
it  comes  through  one  of  the  five  senses.  Any  knowledge 
dealing  with  sound  alone  enters  the  brain  only  through 
the  sense  of  hearing.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  difficulty 
involved  in  teaching  deaf  people  to  talk.  Their  inability 
to  place  their  tones  properly  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  they 
have  no  sense  of  hearing,  hence  no  real  concept  of  sound. 

The  conclusion  for  the  teacher  is  that  every  new  idea 
should  be  presented  through  that  sense  by  which  it  should 
naturally  reach  the  brain.  The  more  senses  involved  in 
the  presentation  of  an  idea,  the  more  perfect  will  be 
its   concept.     The   child   who   has   looked   at  an   apple, 


Aims  and  Principles  15 

handled  an  apple,  smelled  an  apple,  and  tasted  an  apple 
has  a  fuller  and  clearer  concept  of  it  than  the  one  who 
has  experienced  it  through  only  one  sense. 

2.  Closely  allied  with  this  law  is  that  of  Concept 
Formation;  namely,  that  general  concepts  or  general 
ideas  are  gained  only  through  personal  experience  with 
the  individual  elements  which  go  to  make  up  the  concept 
or  idea.  Before  a  complete  concept  or  idea  of  a  dog 
is  formed,  the  child  must  see  big  dogs,  little  dogs,  medium- 
sized  dogs,  white  dogs,  black  dogs,  brown  dogs,  spotted 
dogs,  and  dogs  of  many  different  breeds.  Not  only  must 
he  see  them  but  he  must  watch  them  eat,  play,  run,  and 
hunt,  and  hear  them  bark.  In  other  words,  no  one  can 
give  him  a  complete  concept  of  a  dog.  This  can  come 
only  through  personal  experience — an  experience  which 
is  to  be  made  as  broad  as  practicable. 

The  conclusion  for  the  teacher  is  that  where  practi- 
cable, the  child  should  be  permitted  to  work  out  all  defi- 
nitions, rules,  principles,  and  ideas  in  general  for  him- 
self. Her  work  is  to  bring  him  into  personal  contact 
with  the  experiences  necessary  to  these  ideas  and  then 
to  train  him  to  use  these  experiences  in  forming  general 
ideas. 

Where  it  is  not  possible  to  supply  all  the  necessary  ex- 
perience at  first  hand,  pictures  will  aid  greatly  if  used 
wisely.  In  using  pictures,  the  teacher  should  guard 
against  the  probability  of  the  child's  gaining  a  faulty  idea ; 
for  instance,  a  group  of  children  who  had  seen  only  the 
pictures  of  sheep  formed  the  idea  that  real  sheep  were 
only  one  inch  high. 

3.  The'Law  of  Apperception  deals  with  the  inability 
of  the  mind  to  comprehend  a  thing  which  is  absolutely 
new.     When  the  mind  comes  into  contact  with  anv  new 


14  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

idea,  it  immediately  begins  to  seek  familiar  elements.  If 
these  are  not  forthcoming,  either  the  problem  is  given  up 
or  help  is  sought  in  acquiring  the  experience  which  will 
furnish  the  key  to  the  situation.  Until  this  new  knowl- 
edge is  made  to  fit  into  some  previous  experience  it  is 
not  comprehended  by  the  mind. 

The  conclusion  for  the  teacher  is  that  not  only  must 
she  know  the  subject-matter  thoroughly,  but  she  must 
also  know  the  past  experiences  of  the  child  in  order  to 
be  able  successfully  to  dove-tail  the  new  with  the  old. 
In  other  words,  she  must  be  ready  to  supply  the  neces- 
sary experience  should  it  be  lacking. 

If  the  reading  lesson  is  about  life  in  the  mountains, 
the  child  must  be  given  a  concept  of*  what  a  mountain 
is  before  he  can  really  appreciate  what  life  there  would 
mean.  Or  if  he  is  to  be  taught  long  division,  he  must 
have  had  sufficient  experience  with  addition,  multiplica- 
tion, and  subtraction  to  enable  him  to  comprehend  the 
process  in  hand. 

4.  The  ability  of  the  mind  to  retain  and  to  recall  its 
past  experiences  is  known  as  the  Law  of  Memory.  A 
person  takes  a  pleasure  trip  and  for  many  weeks  and 
months  after  he  has  returned  to  his  home  he  can  recall 
every  incident  of  the  trip. 

This  ability  is  based  on  three  factors;  namely,  (a) 
native  power  of  retention,  (b)  the  number  of  associa- 
tions made,  and  (c)  the  systematic  organization  of  these 
associations. 

Although  the  first  factor  is  very  fundamental  and  one 
which  the  teacher  must  consider  in  dealing  with  indi- 
vidual cases,  it  is  the  one  over  which  she  has-  no  control, 
consequently,  it  will  not  be  discussed  in  this  connection. 
The  discussion  of  the  factors  dealing  with  the  association 


Aims  and  Principles  15 

of    ideas    should    logically    come    under    the    Law    of 
Association. 

5.  The  Law  of  Imagination  deals  with  the  ability  of 
the  mind  to  reproduce  past  experiences  and  then  to 
utilize  these  images  in  dealing  with  new  situations  or 
in  forming  new  concepts  or  ideas.  The  child  who  sees 
the  rag  doll  as  a  beautiful  baby  is  using  imagination, 
or  the  inventor  who  constructs  some  new  device  from 
his  mental  images  is  using  a  very  high  form  of  construct- 
ive imagination. 

Without  imagination  history  and  literature  would  be 
void  of  thought ;  the  ability  to  reason  would  be  seriously 
hampered ;  there  would  be  no  invention ;  and  mental  de- 
velopment would  be  hindered  in  numerous  ways.  In 
presenting  new  ideas  the  teacher  should  develop  that 
imagination  of  the  child  which  is  pertinent  to  the  point 
in  hand  by  helping  him  to  recall  all  past  experience  that 
will  clarify  the  present  situation. 

6.  A  law  which  is  attracting  much  attention  in  the 
discussions  of  present-day  educational  problems  is  that 
known  as  the  Law  of  the  Aim  or  Motive.  The  gist  of 
this  law  is  that  a  task  is  accomplished  more  quickly  and 
with  more  ease  if  the  mind  is  held  to  the  task  by  a  defi- 
nite purpose.  The  child  who  learns  certain  facts  of  addi- 
tion in  order  that  he  may  play  a  game  which  utilizes 
these  facts,  will  accomplish  the  task  with  less  expendi- 
ture of  nervous  energy  and  in  less  time  than  the  one 
who  has  no  reason  for  learning  them  other  than  that 
they  are  just  a  part  of  the  school  work.  Likewise,  the 
child  who  is  learning  to  write  and  to  spell  the  words 
necessary  for  writing  a  letter  to  Santa  Claus,  will  accom- 
plish the  task  with  much  more  ease  than  the  child  who 
learns  to  write  and  to  spell  without  any  apparent  need. 


16  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

McMurry  says  that  to  provide  a  motive  is  the  first  and 
greatest  factor  in  all  education,  as  it  paves  the  way  for 
independent  thinking  and  initiative.  ("Elementary  School 
Standards.") 

The  aim  or  motive  may  be  one  of  two  types:  (a)  the 
desire  to  accomplish  the  task  because  of  some  immediate 
need,  or  (b)  the  desire  to  solve  a  problem  that  has  arisen. 
The  immediate  need  will  probably  be  the  predominating 
motive  with  the  young  child.  He  learns  to  read  so  that 
he  may  read  stories ;  he  learns  the  number  combinations 
so  that  he  may  keep  the  score  in  a  game;  he  learns  to 
write  and  to  spell  so  that  he  may  immediately  write  a 
letter. 

The  desire  to  solve  a  problem  as  a  source  of  motive 
will  be  discussed  under  the  Law  of  Self-Activity. 

7.  Knowledge  cannot  enter  the  mind  without  brain 
activity  on  the  part  of  the  learner,  and  the  more  active 
the  brain  cells,  the  greater  will  be  the  stock  of  knowledge. 
The  teacher  may  read  a  poem  to  the  child,  but  unless 
the  child  thinks  about  it,  it  will  mean  nothing  to  him,  and 
the  more  he  thinks  it  over  the  more  it  will  mean. 

This  Law  of  Self -Activity  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  laws  of  the  learning  process,  since  the  faculties 
of  the  brain  are  stimulated  and  given  opportunity  for 
development  only  through  exercise.  This  activity  of  the 
brain  may  be  aroused  by  the  presentation  of  a  problem 
or  a  thought-compelling  question. 

The  teacher  should  not  confuse  the  thought  question 
with  the  fact  question.  "What  does  the  rabbit  eat?"  is 
a  fact  question,  while  "Why  is  the  color  of  the  gray 
rabbit  a  protection  to  him?"  is  a  thought  question. 

If  the  problem  is  to  be  vital  to  the  child,  it  must  be 
one  that  is   clear  and  definite  and  one  that  he   deems 


Aims  and  Principles  17 

worthy  of  solution.  The  problem  or  thought- compelling 
question  should  dominate  every  lesson  of  the  day.  The 
wording  of  the  problem  should  not  be  left  to  chance, 
but  should  be  carefully  and  thoughtfully  planned. 

8.  The  task  which  arouses  the  active  interest  of  the 
mind  is  accomplished  with  less  expenditure  of  energy 
and  time  than  that  to  which  the  mind  must  be  forced. 
The  child  who  is  interested  in  the  arithmetic  lesson  will 
accomplish  very  mudh  more,  and  will  be  far  less  tired 
than  the  one  who  must  be  forced  to  give  his  attention. 

The  Law  of  Interest  deserves  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  child  is  in- 
terested in  moving  things,  animals,  rhythm,  music,  stories, 
pictures,  drawing,  play,  manipulation,  construction,  bright 
colors,  change,  novelty,  emulation,  and  ownership. 

If  possible,  the  interest  should  be  within  the  process 
itself,  though  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  incentives 
and  devices  to  gain  this  interest ;  but  as  early  as  possible 
this  artificial  interest  should  develop  into  a  natural  one. 
As  previously  suggested,  the  strongest  interest  is  the 
realization  of  a  need. 

9.  Knowledge  does  not  enter  the  mind  unless  the  at- 
tention is  directed  toward  the  issue.  The  child  does  not 
learn  to  recognize  word  symbols  unless  he  directs  his 
attention  toward  the  process  of  word  recognition. 

This  Law  of  Attention  is  so  closely  allied  to  that  of 
interest,  that  the  two  are  almost  identical,  since  attention 
is  given  for  only  a  very  brief  time  to  a  process  that  does 
not  contain  elements  of  interest.  This  attention  should 
be  spontaneous,  inasmuch  as  forced  attention  brings  very 
poor  results,  a  part  of  the  effort  being  given  to  the  act 
of  compelling  oneself  to  attend.  This  produces  fatigue 
and  results  in  a  lack  of  thoroughness.     Children  give 


18  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

attention  only  so  long  as  the  situation  in  hand  is  more 
interesting  than  some  other.  Consequently,  the  teacher 
must  so  plan  her  class  procedure  that  the  work  will 
prove  interesting  throughout  the  recitation  period. 

10.  Whenever  a  thought  enters  the  mind  there  is  a 
tendency  for  it  to  seek  outward  expression  through  some 
form  of  Motor  Activity.  If  the  thought  of  running 
enters  the  mind,  there  is  an  unconscious  contraction  of 
the  muscles  used  in  the  running  process. 

Only  as  a  thought  finds  outward  expression  or  modi- 
fies other  thought  already  in  the  mind,  is  it  of  real 
value.  Consequently,  the  teacher  should  so  plan  that 
all  the  thoughts  gained  in  the  school  life  are  translated 
into  motor  activity.  Her  principle  should  be  that  no 
teaching  is  complete  unless  its  produces  some  motor  re- 
sponse. In  other  words,  impression  is  a  failure  if  there 
is  no  expression. 

The  forms  of  motor  expression  may  be  verbal  speech ; 
written  speech;  bodily  action,  such  as  gestures,  facial 
expression,  contraction  of  muscles ;  dramatization ;  hand- 
work; cooking;  sewing;  fine  arts;  or  any  other  form  by 
which  thought  is  expressed. 

11.  When  an  idea  is  associated  with  other  ideas,  a 
connecting  link  is  formed,  and  the  recall  of  the  one  is 
followed  by  the  appearance  of  those  connected  with  it; 
for  example,  the  baby  connects  the  act  of  having  his  hair 
brushed  with  going  from  the  home. 

The  probability  of  the  recall  of  an  idea  is  strengthened 
with  every  association  made;  therefore,  the  more  nat- 
ural associations  made  the  better,  for  if  one  of  these 
associated  ideas  does  not  appear  in  consciousness  another 
is  almost  sure  to  do  so.  This  Law  of  Association  is  a 
very  important  factor  in  the  memory  process. 


Aims  and   Principles  19 

The  logical  arrangment  of  ideas  is  another  important 
factor  in  the  memory  process.  If  facts  are  grouped  ac- 
cording to  similarity  in  thought  and  principle,  and  so 
that  one  fact  naturally  leads  to  the  succeeding  one,  the 
possibility  of  recall  is  materially  increased.  If  the  teacher 
will  see  that  the  idea  she  wishes  recalled  is  associated 
in  a  logical  way  with  other  ideas,  it  will  result  in  a  more 
effective  type  of  memory. 

12.  The  Laws  of  Memory  and  Association  are  im- 
portant factors  in  the  Law  of  Habit-Formation. 

This  law  may  be  briefly  stated  thus:  every  act  pro- 
duces some  change  in  the  nervous  system,  and  there  is 
always  a  tendency  to  repeat  this  act.  A  response  thus 
repeated  a  number  of  times  has  a  tendency  to  become 
permanent  or  to  be  made  without  the  conscious  attention 
of  the  mind.  When  it  reaches  this  plane  it  is  known 
as  a  habit. 

This  Law  of  Habit-Formation  is  very  important,  since 
a  large  proportion  of  the  acts  of  the  physical  and  mental 
life  of  a  person  are  on  the  plane  of  habit.  The  more 
processes  relegated  to  the  plane  of  habit,  the  broader 
will  be  the  opportunities  for  initiative  in  thought  and 
action. 

13.  The  Law  of  Original  Nature  is  that  the  learning 
process  is  conditioned  by  the  native  capacities  of  the 
brain.  Education  means  the  development  of  the  brain 
cells  given  at  birth,  since  cells  are  never  created  after 
birth. 

The  original  nature  of  the  child  consists  of  certain  in- 
stincts and  capacities.  The  successful  teacher  will  make 
a  close  study  of  the  child  and  strive  to  work  with  the 
helpful  instincts  rather  than  against  them.  She  will 
seek  to  discover  his  natural  capacities  and  concentrate 


20  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

effort  on  the  one  hand  upon  the  proper  development  of 
these  capacities  and  instincts,  and  on  the  other  upon 
the  inhibition  of  harmful  ones. 

As  previously  stated,  the  more  important  of  these  in- 
stincts with  which  education  is  concerned  are  mental 
activity,  emulation,  imitation,  defiance,  ownership,  socia- 
bility, affection,  love  for  outdoor  life,  interest  in  animals, 
admiration  of  bright  colors,  enjoyment  in  display,  col- 
lecting, manipulation,  play,  rhythm,  and  the  dramatic 
instinct. 

Some  of  the  most  fundamental  capacities  are  manage- 
ment of  things,  men,  concrete  ideas,  abstract  ideas,  sym- 
bols; the  capacities  of  self-control,  thoroughness,  origi- 
nality, co-operation,  leadership,  productive  imagination, 
and  concrete  learning. 

REFERENCES 

Thorndike,  Principles  of  Teaching 
Thorndike,  Elementary   Psychology 
Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 
Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 
Strayer-Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 
McMurry,  Elementary  School  Standards 
McMurry,  Method  of  Recitation 


CHAPTER  II 
LESSON  TYPES  IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 

Under  the  old  teaching  regime  there  was  only  one  type 
of  lesson — the  test  or  examination  lesson.  But  as  the 
aim  of  education  has  developed  and  broadened,  the  work 
of  the  teacher  has  become  much  more  comprehensive 
than  that  of  an  examiner.  She  must  train  the  child  to 
proper  habits  of  thinking,  of  study,  of  appreciation,  of 
co-operation,  of  service,  and  to  the  many  other  habits 
specified  in  the  aim  of  education.  Many  of  these  habits 
may  be  developed  through  the  several  types  of  lessons; 
namely,  the  study  lesson,  the  inductive  lesson,  the  appre- 
ciation lesson,  the  drill  lesson,  the  recitation  lesson,  the 
review  lesson,  and  the  test  or  examination  lesson. 

1.  The  Study  Lesson.  The  average  student  in  the 
university,  college,  normal  school,  high  school,  and  ele- 
mentary school  wastes  a  very  large  part  of  his  time  and 
effort.  This  waste  is  chiefly  due  to  a  lack  of  training 
in  the  correct  methods  of  study.  The  ability  to  study 
in  the  proper  way  is  not  an  inheritance,  but  is  a  matter 
of  training — a  training  that  should  begin  in  the  kinder- 
garten, and  continue  until  skillful  methods  of  study  are 
firmly  established. 

One  of  the  first  things  for  the  teacher  to  consider  in 
her  plan  for  a  study  lesson  is  her  motive.  This  should 
be  to  direct  the  child's  effort  in  such  a  manner  that  he 
may  acquire  suitable  habits  of  study;  that  is,  habits  of 

21 


22  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


independence,  of  initiative,  and  of  clearness  and  system 
in  thought  and  action. 

The  next  steps  will  be  to  consider  the  most  effective 
way  of  arousing  his  interest  in  the  lesson  to  be  studied; 
of  helping  him  to  discover  the  problem  of  the  lesson; 
of  training  him  to  select  the  best  methods  of  solving  this 
problem ;  and  of  overcoming  the  difficulties. 

As  study  means  the  solving  of  a  problem,  the  problem 
is  a  very  essential  part  of  the  lesson.  It  has  been  previ- 
ously shown  that  much  more  is  accomplished  when  the 
mind  is  conscious  of  a  definite  aim  or  problem.  Conse- 
quently, the  first  step  in  the  class  procedure  is  to  make 
the  child  conscious  of  a  definite  problem. 

If  the  problem  is  to  be  a  vital  one  to  him,  it  must  be 
one  that  touches  his  daily  life,  and  one  that  he  considers 
worth  solving.  Often  it  will  develop  as  a  part  of  a 
previous  recitation,  or  it  will  arise  in  connection  with 
other  school  activity.  If  it  does  not  appear  in  either  of 
these  cases,  the  subject-matter  should  be  carefully  studied 
by  the  teacher  to  find  what  it  offers  in  the  way  of  a 
problem. 

The  difficulties  in  a  lesson  "will  usually  be  of  two  types : 
those  which  the  child  can  solve  alone  and  those  which 
he  cannot  solve  except  with  assistance.  It  will  require 
knowledge  and  good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  to  foresee  these  difficulties  and  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two  types.  She  should  ask  herself  the  follow- 
ing questions:  First,  "What  has  the  child  within  his 
experience  that  should  help  him  to  overcome  certain 
difficulties?"  If  the  difficulty  is  a  hard  word,  he  may 
know  the  phonetic  sounds  of  which  the  word  is  com- 
posed. Second,  "How  am  I  to  train  him  to  independence 
in  the  discovery  of  this  necessary  experience?"     If  the 


Lesson  Types  in  Primary  Grades  23 

hard  word  is  phonetic,  the  teacher  should  lead  him  to 
analyze  it  into  its  phonetic  elements  and  thus  to  discover 
that  he  can  sound  it.  Third,  "With  what  experience 
must  he  be  supplied  in  order  to  overcome  other  difficul- 
ties?" Fourth,  "What  is  the  most  scientific  way  of  sup- 
plying these  experiences?"  An  attempt  has  been  made 
to  answer  these  question  through  the  methods  of  pre- 
senting the  different  subjects. 

In  the  study  lesson,  especial  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  varying  abilities  of  the  members  of  the  class.  If 
necessary  the  slow  child  should  be  given  individual  and 
shorter  assignments,  and  the  quick  child  should  be  given 
extra  assignments. 

2.  The  Inductive  Lesson.  Very  often  the  study 
lesson  is  of  the  type  commonly  known  as  the  inductive 
lesson.  This  is  the  lesson  based  on  the  principle  of  con- 
cept-formation in  which  the  child  is  led  to  discover  things 
for  himself.  Through  the  study  of  individual  cases,  he 
works  out  definitions,  rules,  and  principles  for  himself. 
The  teacher  does  not  tell  him  that  two  and  two  are 
four,  but  allows  him  to  manipulate  objects  until  he  dis- 
covers it  for  himself.  She  does  not  give  him  the  rules 
for  letter  writing,  but  guides  him  in  the  study  of  real 
letters  until  he  discovers  these  rules.  To  some,  this 
would  seem  a  long  process,  requiring  more  time  than 
the  average  child  can  give,  but  it  is  the  one  that  must 
actually  take  place  in  the  child's  mind  before  he  fully 
comprehends  a  thing  and  before  it  has  become  a  part  of 
his  practical  mental  equipment.  Consequently,  time  is 
saved  by  consciously  training  him  to  the  best  methods 
of  working  out  things  for  himself. 

The  first  step  in  the  procedure  is  to  present  a  problem 
which  is  worth  solving  and  which  the  child  really  de- 


24  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

sires  to  solve;  for  example,  "How  shall  I  begin  the 
letter  which  I  am  going  to  write  to  John?" 

The  material  or  subject-matter  that  is  to  be  examined 
in  the  solving  of  the  problem  must  be  carefully  selected. 
It  must  contain  the  accurate  facts  which  are  to  enable 
the  child  to  arrive  at  a  conclusion.  These  facts  should 
not  be  given  in  an  obscure  way,  but  should  be  within 
his  comprehension.  If  the  problem  is  to  discover  how 
to  begin  a  letter,  the  supply  of  letters  to  be  examined 
should  be  typewritten  and  the  headings  should  contain 
words  which  are  likely  to  be  familiar  to  him. 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  him  to  study  a  single  letter,  but 
he  should  examine  and  compare  a  great  number  until  the 
fact  which  is  being  developed  becomes  an  actual  experi- 
ence within  his  thoughts. 

Only  one  point  should  be  developed  at  a  time;  for 
instance,  in  a  letter  the  first  thing  to  be  written  is  the 
name  of  the  city  and  state  in  which  the  writer  resides. 

The  summary,  or  summing  up  of  the  rule,  principle, 
or  definition  developed  should  form  a  regular  part  of 
the  inductive  lesson.  If  the  correct  way  of  writing  the 
heading  of  the  letter  has  been  developed,  the  teacher 
may  ask,  "What  is  the  first  thing  we  write  in  a  letter?" 
After  a  principle  or  rule  has  been  developed,  it  should 
be  immediately  followed  by  its  application  to  a  problem 
of  life. 

3.  The  Drill  Lesson.  The  drill  lesson  is  one  the 
purpose  of  which  is  to  establish  the  habit  of  making 
certain  responses ;  for  example,  the  use  of  the  rules  and 
principles  developed  in  the  inductive  lesson  must  be 
made  a  habit. 

As  previously  stated,  the  more  responses  a  person  rele- 
gates to  the  plane  of  habit,  the  more  opportunities  the 


Lesson  Types  in  Primary  Grades  25 

mind  will  find  for  thinking  out  problems  and  for  express- 
ing originality  and  individuality  in  thought  and  action. 

The  drill  lesson  should  be  of  especial  interest  to  the 
primary  teacher,  as  her  work  is  largely  that  of  habit 
formation — the  habit  of  making  fixed  responses  in  the 
fundamental  operations  in  arithmetic ;  the  habits  of  form, 
position,  and  movement  in  writing;  the  habit  of  writing 
the  letters  of  a  word  in  a  certain  order  in  spelling;  and 
the  habit  of  using  correct  expressions  in  oral  and  written 
language. 

There  are  certain  factors  or  principles  which  enter  into 
any  habit- forming  exercise.  These  may  be  briefly  given 
as  (a)  a  motive  or  desire  to  form  the  habit;  (b)  a  clear 
idea  of  the  desired  response  or  action;  (c)  attentive 
repetition  of  the  desired  response  or  action;  (d)  no 
exception  ever  to  occur  in  the  response  or  action;  and 
(e)  frequent  reviews. 

a.  Motive.  The  attitude  of  the  child  toward  the 
desired  habit  is  of  great  importance.  Considerable 
time  and  energy  are  wasted  in  drill  work  because  he 
does  not  see  the  use  or  feel  the  need  of  the  habit.  If 
he  has  a  strong  desire  to  form  the  habit  because  he 
feels  the  need  of  it,  the  task  is,  comparatively  speaking, 
half  finished.  The  stronger  and  more  vital  the  motive, 
the  more  concentrated  will  be  the  attention  and  the 
sooner  will  the  desired  result  be  attained. 

b.  Clear  Idea  of  the  Response.  First  impressions 
are  usually  the  deepest  and  the  most  lasting.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  very  important  that  the  first  impression  of 
the  response  or  action  be  clear.  Only  a  small  amount 
of  subject-matter  should  be  used,  since  too  much  will 
tend  to  confuse  the  child  and  prevent  a  clear  first  im- 
pression. 


26  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


c.  Attentive  Repetition.  After  the  child  has  a  clear 
impression  of  the  response  to  be  drilled  on,  the  next  step 
is  that  of  repetition  with  full  attention.  Concentrated 
attention  adds  intensity  to  the  impression  and  accom- 
plishes the  desired  results  much  more  quickly.  The 
teacher  should  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  a  little  child 
is  capable  of  giving  concentrated  attention  to  even  an 
interesting  object  for  only  a  short  period  of  time — that 
unless  there  is  a  change  the  attention  is  given  else- 
where. She  should  plan  to  make  the  drill  period  short 
and  snappy,  with  variety  in  procedure,  and  should  see 
that  there  is  no  waste  of  time  but  that  each  child  gives 
his  entire  attention.  It  is  a  law  of  human  nature  to 
desire  to  continue  that  which  brings  satisfaction  and 
pleasure,  and  to  avoid  that  which  gives  annoyance  and 
pain.  Therefore,  the  teacher  should  plan,  in  so  far  as 
possible,  to  make  each  repetition  bring  some  form  of 
satisfaction  and  pleasure.  This  may  be  either  physical, 
emotional,  or  intellectual. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  interesting  the  as- 
sociations made  in  a  drill  lesson,  the  more  possibilities 
will  there  be  for  recall,  and  the  more  permanent  will  be 
the  habit.  Therefore,  the  teacher  should  plan  for  as 
much  variety  as  possible  in  the  manner  of  conducting 
the  drill. 

d.  No  Exceptions.  Another  important  principle  is 
never  to  allow  an  exception  to  occur  in  giving  the  de- 
sired response.  If  the  drill  is  on  the  fact  that  two  and 
two  are  four,  the  child  should  never  be  allowed  to  say 
that  two  and  two  are  five.  The  wrong  response  not  only 
weakens  the  possibility  of  the  correct  one  but  creates  a 
tendency  to  repeat  this  incorrect  response.  The  child 
should  "be  trained  to  avoid  all  tendencies  to  guess  and 


Lesson  Types  in  Primary  Grades  27 

should  be  taught  to  be  sure  of  the  correctness  of  his 
response. 

e.  Reviews.  If  a  habit  of  response  is  to  be  firmly 
and  permanently  fixed,  a  single  period  of  drill  is  not 
sufficient,  but  systematically  arranged  drills  should  occur 
from  time  to  time.  At  first,  the  drill  should  occur  at 
frequent  intervals;  for  instance,  every  day.  The  time 
elapsing  between  the  periods  should  gradually  lengthen 
until  they  are  discontinued  altogether ;  for  instance,  every 
other  day,  twice  a  week,  once  a  week,  once  every  two 
weeks,  once  a  month,  once  every  two  months,  once  a 
year. 

4.  The  Appreciation  Lesson.  The  appreciation  les- 
son is  one  in  which  the  aim  is  to  develop  the  power  to 
appreciate  the  beautiful,  the  noble,  and  the  humorous  in 
the  social  relationship,  nature,  art,  music,  literature,  and 
the  industrial  world.  This  power  of  appreciation  does 
more,  perhaps,  to  bring  joy  into  life  than  any  other  one 
phase  of  education. 

Experience  teaches  that  what  one  appreciates  is  a  mat- 
ter of  training.  A  person  enjoys  the  music  to  which  he 
is  accustomed;  he  loves  the  literature  which  he  has  had 
constantly  presented  to  him;  or  he  loves  the  pictures 
which  have  been  a  part  of  his  daily  life. 

In  training  for  appreciation  in  music,  literature,  art, 
nature,  social  life,  and  other  fields,  the  teacher  should 
begin  with  the  simple  things  and  gradually  lift  the  child 
to  a  higher  plane  of  appreciation.  In  literature  she 
will  begin  with  the  stories  and  poems  which  most  appeal 
to  him  at  that  period ;  she  will  then  select  those  of  more 
literary  merit  but  similar  in  content  for  the  succeeding 
attempts.  Thus  she  will  gradually  lead  the  child  to  love 
and  to  appreciate  the  higher  forms  of  literature. 


28  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


The  attitude  of  the  teacher  toward  the  material  is  of 
paramount  importance.  She  should  appreciate  to  the 
fullest,  else  she  cannot  arouse  the  desired  emotion  within 
the  child.  She  should  avoid  allowing  her  emotions  to 
dominate  the  situation  and  thus  force  her  view-point  on 
the  child. 

The  child  should  be  encouraged  in  the  free  expression 
of  any  emotion  or  idea  which  comes  to  him  in  the  study. 
He  should  be  trained  to  study  the  different  parts  or 
situations  and  choose  those  which  especially  appeal  to 
him. 

5.  The  Review  Lesson.  The  review  lesson  is  a 
recall  of  old  subject-matter  in  a  new  way.  This  makes 
new  associations  which  should  increase  the  chances  for 
future  recall.  Not  only  are  the  chances  for  recall  more 
certain,  but  a  better  organization  of  subject-matter  is 
effected.  This  increases  the  possibilities  of  its  functioning 
in  actual  life. 

The  review  lesson,  which  may  also  be  an  examination 
or  test  lesson,  should  form  a  part  of  every  recitation, 
inasmuch  as  the  new  knowledge  gained  should  be  con- 
stantly related  to  that  already  learned. 

6.  The  Recitation  Lesson.  This  is  the  type  of 
lesson  in  which  the  time  is  devoted  to  a  report  and  a 
discussion  of  the  problem  which  has  been  assigned  for 
study.  It  is  through  this  discussion  that  the  teacher 
helps  the  child  to  clarify  and  to  arrange  his  ideas  sys- 
tematically. He  should  learn  not  only  to  systematize  his 
knowledge  but  he  should  be  given  opportunity  to  de- 
velop his  power  of  expression,  his  initiative,  his  indi- 
viduality, his  judgment,  and  his  power  of  independence  in 
thought  and  action. 


Lesson  Types  in  Primary  Grades  29 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 
Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 
Strayer-Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 
McMurry,  Elementary  School  Standards 
McMurry,  Method  of  the  Recitation 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  LESSON  PLAN  IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 

The  day  of  haphazard  teaching  when  the  teacher  callec] 
the  jmpils  to  class,  borrowed  a  book  from  one  of  them, 
and  then  proceeded  to  examine  their  ability  to  recite 
verbatim  the  subject-matter  of  the  designated  lesson,  is  a 
thing  of  the  past.  In  the  evolution  of  teaching  methods, 
it  has  been  revealed  that  this  is  a  most  wasteful  pro- 
cedure— wasteful  not  only  in  time  and  energy  but  in  re- 
sults as  well.  The  teacher  who  has  no  definite  idea  of 
what  she  is  to  do  or  of  the  best  methods  of  doing  it, 
will  accomplish  very  little. 

If  the  results  desired  in  a  lesson  are  secured  without 
an  unnecessary  outlay  of  time  and  energy,  the  class  pro- 
cedure must  be  carefully  and  definitely  planned.  This 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  go  before  her  class  with  a 
well  defined  idea  of  the  content  of  the  lesson,  and  a 
clear  idea  of  what  she  expects  the  child  to  gain  through 
the  lesson.  It  will  systematize  the  work,  direct  effort 
so  that  the  desired  results  will  follow,  save  time  and 
energy,  insure  emphasis  on  the  important  points,  prevent 
wandering,  increase  the  self-confidence  of  the  teacher, 
and  inspire  the  confidence  of  the  child. 

It  is  doubtful  if  a  teacher  ever  reaches  the  point  where 
it  is  unnecessary  to  plan  the.  day's  work.  It  takes  this 
re-planning  to  stimulate  her  own  effort  as  well  as  that 
of  the  child.  A  much-used  plan  is  likely  to  become  dry 
and  monotonous. 

30 


Lesson  Plan  in  Primary  Grades  31 

Curriculum.  The  discussion  of  the  curriculum 
should  be  pertinent  to  the  lesson  plan,  as  the  selection  of 
subject-matter  is  an  important  part  of  the  primary  teach- 
er's work.  No  phase  of  education  has  undergone  more 
radical  change  than  that  of  the  curriculum.  Accord- 
ing to  modern  educational  thought,  the  predominating 
elements  in  the  curriculum  should  be  the  facts  and  activi- 
ties which  begin  with  and  are  conditioned  by  the  daily 
life  of  the  child.  In  other  words,  the  schoolroom  ac- 
tivities should  be  near  enough  to  his  vital  interests  to 
make  him  feel  their  worth  and  to  enable  him  to  apply 
them  in  his  daily  life.  The  real  test  of  education  should 
be  the  difference  it  makes  in  daily  life. 

McMurry  says,  "Whatever  cannot  be  shown  to  have  a 
plain  relation  to  some  real  need  of  life,  whether  aes- 
thetic, ethical,  or  utilitarian  in  the  narrow  sense,  must 
be  dropped.1"  The  application  of  this  principle  would  do 
more  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  schools  than  any 
other  one  thing. 

Subject-Matter.  The  first  prerequisite  to  the  lesson 
plan  is  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter. 
Many  primary  teachers  fail  because  of  the  almost  uni- 
versal belief  that  the  subject-matter  of  the  primary  grades 
should  not  require  study  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
Many  of  the  lessons  in  reading  and  literature  will  re- 
quire concentrated  study  in  order  that  the  teacher  may 
discover  the  attitude  and  purpose  of  the  author,  and  that 
she  may  become  imbued  with  the  emotions  and  senti- 
ments of  the  selection.  Many  of  the  lessons  in  nature 
study  and  social  life  will  require  careful  study  in  order 
that  the  facts  may  be  organized  in  a  systematic  way. 


iAdvisable  Omissions  from  the  Elementary  Curriculum.— Ed. 
Review. 


32  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Teacher's  Motive.  Another  phase  of  the  lesson  plan 
which  is  closely  linked  with  the  subject-matter  is  that 
of  the  teacher's  motive.  Just  what  is  the  specific  thing 
that  is  to  be  accomplished  through  the  use  of  this  sub- 
ject-matter? What  are  the  points  to  be  stressed?  Is  it 
to  increase  skill  or  to  form  certain  habits?  Is  it  a 
lesson  to  develop  knowledge  or  to  develop  appreciation? 
Whatever  the  motive,  it  is  important  that  she  determine 
definitely  in  advance  of  the  class  period  just  what  she 
expects  the  child  to  gain  through  the  lesson. 

Outline.  Where  a  lesson  or  a  lesson  unit  deals  with 
more  than  one  fact,  a  better  organization  may  be  effected 
if  the  subject-matter  is  outlined.  A  well  organized  out- 
line will  prove  very  helpful  in  many  of  the  lessons  in 
language,  nature  study,  and  social  life.  This  outline 
will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  teacher,  enabling  her  to 
emphasize  a  few  large  points  rather  than  waste  time  on 
unimportant  details. 

In  making  an  outline  the  teacher  should  consider  the 
order  which  will  be  the  most  effective  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  child's  interest.  Very  few  points  should  be 
attempted  in  any  one  lesson,  otherwise  it  will  close 
leaving  the  child  with  only  a  hazy  idea  of  the  facts 
involved. 

Child's  Motive.  If  the  interest  and  attention  of  the 
child  are  to  be  of  the  best  type,  they  should  be  based  on 
his  conscious  desire  to  do  the  work.  It  would  not  be  im- 
pertinence should  he  demand  to  know  why  he  must  do  the 
thing  required.  It  is  one  of  the  problems  of  the  teacher 
to  make  him  see  and  feel  the  practical  reasons  for  the 
schoolroom  procedure.  In  other  words,  the  child  must  be 
conscious  that  the  lesson  holds  something  that  he  needs  in 
his    daily   life.      The   teacher   must    study   her    subject- 


Lesson  Plan  in  Primary  Grades  33 

matter  carefully  to  see  what  possibilities  it  holds  in  the 
way  of  motives  or  problems  for  the  child. 

The  selection  of  this  motive  should  not  be  left  to 
chance  but  should  be  carefully  thought  out.  It  should 
be  near  enough  to  his  natural  interests  and  activities  to 
seem  worth  while.  A  real  problem  exists  only  when  there 
is  an  actual  desire  to  find  the  answer. 

The  teacher  must  be  careful  not  to  set  up  problems 
which  are  too  remote,  as  the  child  lives  primarily  in  the 
present.  School  festivals,  entertainments,  general  as- 
semblies, excursions,  industrial  activities,  play,  games, 
and  school  parties  for  parents  are  excellent  as  a  source 
of  motive. 

Class  Procedure.  The  next  part  of  the  lesson  plan 
deals  with  the  class  procedure.  This  is  perhaps  the 
most  vital  part  of  the  plan,  since  in  this  the  teacher 
must  devise  how  she  will  handle  the  subject-matter  in 
order  to  awaken  the  child's  interest,  to  arouse  in  him  a 
desire  to  accomplish  the  task  in  hand,  and  to  accomplish 
her  motive. 

In  planning  for  the  class  procedure  she  should  con- 
sider the  kind  of  response  she  is  likely  to  receive  and 
how  to  provide  another  question  if  the  response  is  not  as 
comprehensive  as  it  should  be.  She  should  also  consider 
how  this  response  is  to  be  handled  in  order  that  the 
child  shall  develop  the  proper  initiative  and  acquire 
proper  habits  of  organizing  ideas  and  of  judging  values. 

An  important  factor  in  the  class  procedure  is  the  ques- 
tion. Its  purpose  is  to  test  knowledge  and  to  stimulate 
thought.  It  should  be  clear,  definite,  concise,  interest- 
ing, and  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  child.  As  a  general 
thing  it  should  not  be  a  direct  question  which  can  be 
answered  by  yes  or  no,  neither  should  it  be  one  which 


34  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

is  declarative  in  form  nor  one  which  suggests  the  answer, 
as  "Yesterday  was  a  rainy  day,  was  it  not?" 

The  thought-provoking  question  is  one  which  stimulates 
thought;  for  example,  "What  would  be  a  good  title  for 
this  story  ?"  This  type  of  question  should  predominate  in 
every  lesson.  It  is  doubtful  if  a  lesson  which  involves 
questioning  should  ever  be  given  without  containing 
thought  questions. 

In  asking  a  question  the  teacher  should  direct  it  toward 
the  entire  class  rather  than  toward  one  child,  in  order 
to  keep  all  mentally  alert.  She  should  avoid  repeating 
either  question  or  answer. 

The  Steps  in  a  Lesson  Plan.  The  Herbartian  steps 
for  the  class  procedure  are  preparation,  presentation,  com- 
parison, generalization  or  summary,  and  application.  It 
is  doubtful  if  all  these  steps  enter  into  any  one  lesson, 
unless  it  be  the  inductive-deductive  lesson.  In  the  other 
types,  the  steps  of  (1)  preparation,  (2)  presentation,  (3) 
generalization  or  summary,  and  (4)  application  are  the 
ones  generally  used. 

1.  Preparation.  The  procedure  should  start  off 
with  a  question  or  statement  that  will  immediately  at- 
tract the  interest  of  the  child  to  the  problem  in  hand. 
The  poor  results  attained  in  many  lessons  may  be  traced 
to  the  failure  of  the  teacher  to  recognize  the  point  of 
contact  between  the  child  and  the  lesson.  The  child 
must  recognize  from  the  first,  that  the  lesson  is  one  in 
which  he  has  a  part,  one  which  appeals  to  him  as  worth 
while.  Considerable  time  and  energy  will  be  saved  if 
the  first  words  of  the  teacher  attract  his  attention. 

When  new  material  is  to  be  presented,  the  first  step 
is  the  recall  of  any  former  experiences  of  the  child  which 
are  pertinent  to  his  understanding  of  the  new  one.     If 


Lesson  Plan  in  Primary  Grades  35 

he  has   not  had  this  necessary  experience,   it  must  be 
supplied. 

2.  Presentation.  This  step  of  preparation  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  presentation  of  the  main  points  of  the  new 
subject-matter  through  questions,  conversation,  or  illus- 
trative material  arranged  in  psychological  order. 

3.  Summary.  Another  important  factor  in  the 
class  procedure  is  the  provision  for  a  summary  of  the 
important  facts  or  points  covered  in  the  lesson.  If  this 
is  not  done  the  lesson  will  often  prove  a  failure,  because 
of  the  child's  inability  to  organize  the  points  covered. 
The  summary  can  often  be  made  in  answer  to  a  skillful 
question  by  the  teacher;  thus,  "What  have  we  learned 
about  letter  writing  today  ?  " 

4.  Application.  Wherever  knowledge  has  been  ac- 
quired or  a  habit  has  been  established,  it  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  application  of  this  skill  to  daily  life.  If  a 
number  fact  has  been  learned  it  should  be  used  imme- 
diately in  the  child's  daily  life.  If  this  step  of  applica- 
tion cannot  be  provided  for  in  a  natural  way,  it  would 
be  well  for  the  teacher  to  scrutinize  closely  her  choice  of 
subject-matter  to  discover  if  it  be  well  selected. 

Assignment.  Very  often  in  the  class  procedure  a 
question  will  arise  which  should  be  utilized  as  a  problem 
for  the  assignment  of  the  next  lesson.  These  should  be 
carefully  noted  and  made  use  of.  If  the  new  problem 
does  not  arise  out  of  the  class  discussion,  the  teacher 
should  help  the  child  to  discover  one  in  the  new  lesson. 

Illustrative  Material.  The  plan  should  provide  for 
any  illustrative  materials  that  will,  aid  in  making  the 
lesson  clearer  and  more  vital  to  the  child.  The  teacher 
will  find  the  use  of  such  material  one  of  the  most  effec- 
tive devices  that  she  can  utilize.     If  cards  or  charts  are 


36  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

used,  these  should  be  listed,  together  with  any  books  of 
reference,  with  explicit  page  numbers.  All  material 
should  be  systematically  arranged  and  placed  in  readi- 
ness before  the  recitation. 

If  the  teacher  has  more  than  one  grade  and  does  not 
have  the  time  for  a  detailed  plan  in  each  subject,  she 
will  find  that  considerable  time  may  be  saved  by  taking 
a  subject  and  planning  the  lessons  in  this  for  several 
days  at  one  time.  Then  as  she  gains  in  experience,  she 
will  find  that  all  that  is  necessary  is  a  skeleton  plan 
showing  the  motives,  the  outline  of  the  subject-matter, 
and  a  few  of  the  pivotal  questions. 

Following  will  be  found  a  general  outline  showing  the 
form  of  the  lesson  plan : 

I.  Topic:   What  the  lesson  is  about. 

II.  The  Teacher's  Motive:  The  definite  things  which 
the  teacher  expects  to  accomplish  in  the  lesson. 

III.  The  Outline:  A  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
points  to  be  covered  in  the  lesson. 

IV.  The  Child's  Motive:  The  definite  thing  which  the 
child  expects  to  accomplish  in  the  lesson. 

V.  The  Class  Procedure:  The  preparation  of  the  mind 

of  the  pupil  for  the  lesson,  the  presentation  of 
the  subject-matter,  the  summary  of  the  points 
made,  and  the  application. 
A  suggested  arrangement  for  the  class  procedure  is  as 
follows : 

Subject-matter  Procedure 

1  1 

The  experience  of  the  Preparation:    The   recall    of   the 

child  relevant  to  the  new      experiences   of  the  child  which   will 
subject-matter.  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  new  lesson. 

This  may  he  done  through  questions 
or  conversation. 


Lesson  Plan  in  Primary  Grades 


37 


New  subject-matter  in 
outline  to  correspond  to 
the  divisions  of  the  pro- 
cedure. 

References  given  in 
detail  as  to  the  book  and 
the  page. 

All  illustrative  mate- 
rial listed. 

3 

The  definite  statement 
of  the  desired  summary. 


Activities 
life,  either 
home. 


from    daily- 
school     or 


The  teacher  should  avoid  side  is- 
sues by  holding  him  to  the  points 
which  are  a  necessary  foundation  for 
the  new  knowledge. 

Through  this  step  his  interest  in 
the  new  work  should  be  aroused,  and 
from  it  should  develop  his  problem 
or  motive. 

2 

Presentation:  Manner  of  pre- 
senting the  new  material  designated, 
the  questions  to  be  asked,  the  de- 
vices to  >be  used.  Suggestions  for 
the  use  of  motor  responses  most  per- 
tinent to  the  subject-matter. 


Summary:  The  method  used  in 
summing  up  and  organizing  the 
points  developed. 

4 

Application:  The  new  knowledge 
gained  is  used  immediately  in  some 
form  of  school  work  or  suggestions 
are  made  for  its  application  in  home 
life. 


REFERENCES 


Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 
Earhart,   Types   in   Teaching 
McMurry,  Elementary  School  Standards 
McMurry,  Method  of  Recitation 


CHAPTER  IV 

READING 

AIMS 

In  this  utilitarian  age  the  first  question  that  arises 
in  the  discussion  of  a  subject  pertains  to  its  use  or  value. 
In  the  following  reasons  should  be  found  a  partial  answer 
to  the  question  of  the  value  of  reading. 

1.  We  read  to  gain  information  to  direct  us  in  our 
daily  life ;  for  instance,  the  weather  forecast,  the  schedule 
of  the  trains,  the  prices  of  grain,  or  of  market  produce. 

2.  Through  reading  we  broaden  our  lives  immeas- 
urably by  learning  of  the  experiences  of  others.  Ordinary 
intelligence  demands  a  knowledge  of  current  events. 

3.  As  human  nature  has  not  changed  since  the  begin- 
ning of  authentic  history,  the  reading  of  history  aids  us 
in  judging  intelligently  the  events  of  the  present  and  also 
in  foreseeing  what  is  likely  to  occur  in  the  future. 

4.  We  read  for  pleasure,  for  culture,  and  for  spiritual 
help.  It  is  in  the  truest  sense  that  this  reading  directs 
our  life,  interprets  our  experiences,  and  determines  our 
ideals. 

It  would  seem  that  reading  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant subjects  the  child  will  have  in  the  first  three  years 
of  his  school  life.  The  art  of  reading  once  mastered,  all 
literature,  all  history,  and  all  other  knowledge  found  in 
books,  are  within  his  grasp  and  he  passes  at  once  from 
the  dependent  to  the  independent  stage.     Hence,  it  is  of 

38 


Reading  39 


essential  importance  that  the  primary  teacher  be  skilled 
in  methods  that  will  enable  the  child  to  learn  to  read 
with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  energy. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  evolution  in  the  subject-matter  of  primary  reading 
is  a  very  interesting  study,  though  only  a  very  brief 
account  of  it  can  be  given.  The  early  readers  were  dis- 
tinctly ABC  books,  containing  letters,  syllables,  and 
certain  extracts  of  a  religious  nature.  The  present-day 
movement,  started  with  the  Reformation.  In  this  period, 
the  books  were  distinctly  religious  in  character,  consist- 
ing of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Commandments,  and  other 
scriptural  selections.  This  religious  element  held  sway 
until  the  eighteenth  century,  though  other  material  was 
beginning  to  creep  in.  It  then  gave  way  to  material 
about  things  to  eat,  moral  tales,  and  the  like.  As  time 
went  on  there  were  many  changes  until  the  present-day 
type  of  classical  literature  has  become  the  standard. 

Under  the  old  regime  the  teacher's  only  problem  was 
that  of  teaching  the  child  how  to  read.  But  for  many 
years  there  has  been  a  growing  realization  that  teaching 
"how  to  read"  is  only  a  part  of  the  teacher's  problem. 
The  more  indispensable  problem  is  that  of  training  him 
in  "what  to  read." 

Much  of  the  crime  and  immorality  of  the  present  is 
due  to  the  trashy  reading  material  which  too  often  forms 
a  large  part  of  the  library  of  the  younger  generation. 
For  the  sake  of  giving  the  child  right  ideals,  the  teacher 
must  place  before  him  the  best  in  literature — that  which 
will  supply  not  only  standards  in  language  but  ideals  in 
character.  His  experiences  should  be  reinforced  by  the 
teachings  of  others — the  lessons  which  have  been  treas- 


40  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

ured  in  books,  and  these  lessons  should  begin  in  child- 
hood. 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  postpone  the  reading  of  good 
literature  until  the  child  has  mastered  word-form  and 
the  other  technique  of  reading.  In  the  newer  methods, 
the  teacher  tells  the  child  stories  and  teaches  him  rhymes 
and  poems  from  the  best  literature  and  then  uses  these 
as  the  subject-matter  for  the  early  reading  lessons.  Thus, 
from  the  very  first  the  subject-matter  has  literary  value. 

These  early  lessons  are  followed  by  the  reading  of 
books  which  contain  interesting  Mother  Goose  rhymes, 
fairy  stories,  myths,  fables,  legends,  poems,  and  lessons 
of  information.  The  selections  should  be  simple,  easily 
reproduced,  and  readily  dramatized.  Through  the  use  of 
this  class  of  literature  the  child  gains  many  lessons  in 
right  conduct  and  becomes  accustomed  to  good,  refined 
English. 

There  is  such  a  wealth  of  material  offered  for  primary 
reading  that  the  teacher  will  find  it  a  difficult  task  to 
select  the  best.  Any  material  selected  should  possess  the 
following  qualities:    (a)   it  should  have  literary  merit; 

(b)  it  should  be  of  a  character  to  appeal  to  the  child; 

(c)  it  should  be  simple  in  thought  and  form;  and  (d) 
it  should  contain  familiar  words. 

Any  text  from  the  following  list  will  meet  these  require- 
ments : 

Smith,  Easy  Road  to  Reading — Lyons  and  Carnahan, 

Chicago. 
Free  and  Treadwell,  Reading — Literature  Readers — 

Row,  Peterson,  and  Co.,  Chicago. 
Withers,  Brown,  and  Tate,  the  Child's  World — B.  F. 

Johnson  Publishing  Co.,  Richmond 


Reading  41 


Gordon,  The  Gordon  Readers — New  Series — D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  New  York 

Elson,  Elson  Primary  School  Readers — Scott,  Fores- 
man  &  Co.,  Chicago. 

Coe  and  Christie,  Story  Hour  Readers — American 
Book  Co.,  New  York 

METHOD 

Many  methods  of  teaching  reading  have  been  ex- 
ploited. One  of  the  first  used  is  that  known  as  the 
"alphabet  method."  In  this  method  the  child  first  learned 
the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  then  these  were  joined  into 
syllables,  then  these  syllables  into  words.  He  was  then 
ready  to  read  sentences.  This  method  has  not  been  used 
by  trained  teachers  since  1870,  as  it  was  found  to  be  very 
slow  and  uninteresting.  Then  inasmuch  as  the  name  of 
the  letter  is  no  index  to  its  sound,  the  child  gained  very 
slowly  the  power  of  making  out  new  words  for  himself. 
It  was  really  only  as  he  unconsciously  learned  to  connect 
the  sound  of  the  letter  with  its  name  that  he  could  make 
out  a  word  by  spelling  it.  M-a-n  does  not  sound  like  the 
word  man  if  only  the  letters  are  named.  It  is  only  through 
practice  that  a  child  unconsciously  connects  the  sounds  of 
the  letters  with  the  letter  names. 

The  first  effort  at  relieving  the  drudgery  of  the  alpha- 
bet method  by  phonics  was  made  by  Ickelsamer  in  1534. 
In  the  "phonic  method"  the  child  was  taught  the  sounds 
of  the  letters,  followed  by  the  use  of  this  knowledge  in 
making  out  new  words.  After  acquiring  a  number  of 
words  he  was  ready  to  begin  the  reading  process.  This 
method,  also,  was  found  to  be  slow,  uninteresting,  and 
mechanical,  though  it  did  give  the  child  the  power  to 
make  out  many  unknown  words  for  himself. 


42  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Another  method  which  found  great  favor  was  the 
"word  method."  The  child  was  first  taught  isolated 
words  and  then  these  words  were  joined  into  sentences. 
This  was  more  rapid,  more  interesting,  and  less  mechan- 
ical than  the  phonic  or  the  alphabet  method.  However, 
it  bordered  closely  upon  the  mechanical  and  was  purely 
a  memory  process,  making  the  child  dependent  upon 
outside  aid  when  he  came  into  contact  with  a  new  word. 

The  method  known  as  the  "sentence  method"  was  a 
contribution  by  Oliver.  By  this  method  the  child  was 
taught  to  read  by  whole  sentences.  This  was  more  rapid 
and  much  more  interesting,  but  it  was  a  cumbersome 
method  and,  as  in  the  word  method,  it  did  not  give  the 
child  the  power  to  make  out  new  words  for  himself. 

From  these  early  methods  has  evolved  what  is  known 
as  the  "combination  method."  This  is  a  combination  of  the 
best  features  of  the  phonic,  word,  and  sentence  methods. 
The  methods  known  as  the  story,  the  rhyme,  and  the 
conversation  methods  are  specialized  developments  of 
the  combination  method. 

Story  Method.  According  to  the  psychology  of 
reading,  the  story  which  has  been  told  to  the  child  is  a 
natural  point  of  departure  in  teaching  him  to  read.  The 
desire  for  the  story  seems  to  be  especially  strong  when 
he  enters  school,  and  it  should  prove  a  strong  motive  for 
his  learning  to  read.  Not  only  does  the  story  awaken  his 
interest  in  learning  to  read,  but  it  also  provides  him  with 
subject-matter  of  a  nature  that  grips  his  attention  and 
develops  his  power  for  connected  thinking. 

The  story  should  be  carefully  selected  as  to  context  and 
should  abound  in  repetition.  After  it  has  been  told  until 
the  child  is  perfectly  familiar  with  its  thought  and  word- 
ing, it  is  made  the  basis  of  a  reading  lesson,  questions 


Reading  43 


being  asked  to  bring  out  the  different  thoughts.  After 
the  reading,  he  is  guided  in  finding  certain  words  in  the 
story,  those  words  being  selected  which  are  found  in  the 
vocabulary  of  his  early  reading  book. 

Rhyme  Method.  The  nursery  rhymes  that  have 
stood  the  test  of  time  furnish  delightful  reading  matter 
for  the  little  child.  He  has  a  rhythmic  sense  that  is  un- 
mistakable and  the  poem  or  rhyme  selection  should  have 
the  rhythmic  element.  It  should  also  have  the  element  of 
mystery  to  stir  his  imagination.  The  nursery  and  the 
nonsense  rhymes  fulfill  both  these  conditions,  since  the 
rhythm  of  the  jingle  is  irresistible,  and  its  mingling  of 
sense  and  nonsense  arouses  the  imagination,  while  its 
fascination  appeals  even  to  the  slowest  and  dullest  pupil. 

The  rhyme  should  be  carefully  selected  as  to  context 
and  should  contain  three  or  more  of  the  words  from  the 
vacabulary  of  the  child's  early  book.  After  he  has  thor- 
oughly memorized  this  rhyme,  it  is  made  the  basis  of  a 
reading  lesson.  After  it  is  read,  the  words  of  the  rhyme 
belonging  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  book  are  selected  by 
the  child  and  learned  through  drill. 

In  discussing  the  use  of  the  rhyme  in  teaching  new 
words,  Dr.  McMurry1  says,  "In  this  way  they  were  learn- 
ing to  recognize  form  by  the  aid  of  the  context,  which  is 
the  least  mechanical,  and  the  most  independent  approach 
to  new  words — either  form  or  meaning — that  there  is. 
This  plan,  together  with  the  fact  that  the  children  were 
already  sharing  with  the  teacher  the  responsibility  of 
deciding  the  correctness  of  answers,  gave  promise  of 
rapid  development  of  self-reliance  in  the  class."  This  is 
also  true  in  the  use  of  the  story  and  the  conversation 
methods. 


'Elementary  School  Standards. 


44  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Conversation  Method.  In  the  conversation  method 
the  teacher  enters  into  conversation  with  the  child  about 
his  play,  home  experiences,  or  any  other  of  his  activities, 
and  after  an  oral  discussion  of  this  topic  she  suggests 
the  writing  of  the  story  on  the  board.  It  is  then  made 
the  basis  of  a  reading  lesson.  As  in  other  methods,  he 
is  guided  in  selecting  certain  Words  which  belong  to  the 
vocabulary  of  his  first  book. 

Incidental  Reading.  If  reading  is  to  develop  as  a 
natural  and  a  necessary  process,  every  opportunity  must 
be  utilized  for  emphasizing  it  in  connection  with  other 
schoolroom  activities.  For  instance,  the  teacher  says, 
"I  want  every  one  to  rise,"  writing  the  word  rise  as  she 
pronounces  it.     The  next  time  she  says,  "I  want  every 

one  to  ,"  and  instead  of   pronouncing  rise,  she 

writes  it  on  the  board. 

Recognition  of  the  names  of  each  child  may  be  taught 
in  this  way  as,  "I  want  John  to  erase  the  board."  As 
the  word  John  is  pronounced  it  is  written  on  the  board. 

The  next  time  she  says,  "I  want  to  erase  the 

board,"  writing  the  name  John  instead  of  pronouncing  it. 

In  language  the  names  of  poems  and  stories,  and  char- 
acters in  the  dramatization  may  be  developed  incidentally. 
Nature  study,  music,  number  work,  and  games  should 
also  furnish  abundant  opportunity  for  incidental  reading. 

Silent  Reading.  Silent  reading  is  the  gathering  of 
thought  from  the  printed  page.  This  is  a  very  important 
part  of  primary  reading,  as  reading  should  always  be  a 
process  of  thought-getting.  The  child  should  be  taught 
from  the  first  day  of  his  school  life  that  every  sentence 
is  the  embodiment  of  a  thought — a  thought  that  is  highly 
important  and  interesting  from  his  standpoint. 

There   is   an   erroneous  idea  that  all    reading  in   the 


Reading  45 


schoolroom  should  be  oral.  When  we  stop  to  consider, 
we  find  that  practically  all  the  reading  done  in  real  life  is 
silent  reading.  Even  in  school  life  we  find  that  the  pro- 
portion of  silent  reading  done  is  much  greater  than  that 
of  oral  reading. 

Rate  in  Silent  Reading.  Extensive  experiments  have 
been  conducted  to  prove  the  relative  value  of  the  rate 
with  which  thought  is  gathered  from  the  printed  page. 
These  experiments  have  developed  the  fact  that  the 
rapid  reader  is  a  more  intelligent  reader  than  the  slow 
reader,  that  his  impressions  are  more  intensive  and  more 
vivid,  and  that  he  retains  the  thought  longer.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  important  advantages  the  rapid  reader  saves 
considerable  time  and  energy  in  reading  an  equal  amount 
of  subject-matter.  The  conclusion  is  that  the  teacher 
should  strive  from  the  beginning  to  train  the  child  to 
become  a  rapid  reader,  first,  through  the  instantaneous 
recognition  of  words  and  groups  of  words,  and  then 
through  practice  in  the  rapid  reading  of  sentences  and 
paragraphs. 

Oral  Reading.  Good  oral  reading  is  the  effective 
voicing  of  a  thought  as  it  is  gathered  from  the  printed 
page.  This  will  involve  the  immediate  recognition  of 
words,  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  author's  thought, 
a  clear  enunciation,  correct  articulation,  correct  position, 
and  a  desire  to  please  the  audiepce.  The  child  must  have 
much  training  in  thought-getting  before  he  is  able  to  read 
in  a  pleasing  way.  Actual  oral  reading  does  not  begin  for 
several  weeks  after  he  has  entered  school,  as  he  is  not 
capable  of  gathering  thought  from  the  printed  page  until 
he  has  gained  some  facility  in  the  recognition  of  words. 

Expression.  One  of  the  bugbears  to  the  teacher  of 
oral  reading  is  expression.     In  the  older  methods,  one 


46  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

way  of  training  for  expression  was  to  have  the  child 
count  a  certain  number  of  times  for  each  punctuation 
mark ;  for  example,  for  a  comma  he  paused  long  enough 
to  count  one,  for  a  semicolon  two,  for  a  colon  three,  and 
for  a  period  four.  He  was  also  told  to  let  his  voice  rise 
or  fall  for  certain  marks.  Another  method  was  that  of 
imitation  of  the  teacher's  reading  or  that  of  some  one  in 
the  class.  It  will  be  readily  recognized  that  these  meth- 
ods are  purely  mechanical. 

Oral  expression  is  based  entirely  on  the  reader's  inter- 
pretation of  the  thought.  Silent  reading  always  pre- 
cedes oral  reading,  since  thought-getting  is  a  prerequisite 
to  thought-giving.  Much  of  the  burden  of  training  the 
child  to  read  with  natural  expression  would  be  removed 
if  the  teacher  would  realize  that  good  oral  reading  de- 
pends upon  the  grasping  of  the  thought.  The  teacher's 
problem  is  to  lead  the  child  to  this  proper  interpretation 
of  the  thought.  This  may  be  done  through  the  use  of 
stories,  pictures,  hand  work,  dramatization,  and  questions. 

1.  Pictures.  The  teacher  should  find  the  child's 
instinctive  love  for  the  picture  a  great  help  in  teaching 
reading.  The  picture  found  in  connection  with  the  read- 
ing lesson  is  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  as  it  usually 
tells  the  gist  -of  the-  story.  It  attracts  his  attention  and 
arouses  his  interest.  It  is  not  a  waste  of  time  to  study 
it  carefully,  if  the  child's  attention  is  directed  by  well 
selected  questions  and  suggestions,  thus  enabling  him  not 
merely  to  see  the  separate  objects  in  the  picture  but  to 
grasp  its  story. 

This  thoughtful  study  of  the  picture  should  be  bene- 
ficial from  the  standpoint  of  arousing  interest  in  the 
reading  lesson,  as  well  as  from  that  of  aiding  in  oral 
expression.     If  the  child  reads  a  part  of  the  story  in  the 


Reading  47 


picture,  he  will  be  eager  to  read  the  remainder  from  the 
printed  page. 

The  grasping  of  the  thought  and  the  good  oral  expres- 
sion of  this  thought  depend  upon  the  mental  picture  back 
of  the  oral  utterance.  If  the  visual  picture  is  wisely  used, 
it  helps  the  child  to  form  this  necessary  mental  picture. 
The  reading  of  the  lesson  will  verify  and  add  to,  or 
modify  the  picture  story.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  constant  reference  to  it  both  during 
and  after  the  reading  of  the  lesson. 

2.  Handwork.  Free  -  hand  illustrations  of  the 
printed  story  by  means  of  pencil,  chalk,  or  crayon  pic- 
tures, free-hand  paper  cutting,  and  clay  modeling  will 
prove  helpful  in  developing  the  mental  pictures. 

3.  Dramatization.  To  dramatize  or  to  act  out  a 
story  is  a  natural  instinct  of  the  child.  This  instinct 
is  a  good  foundation  on  which  to  build  in  training  him 
to  read  with  natural  expression,  inasmuch  as  dramatic 
action  is  a  great  source  of  delight  during  the  primary 
period.  This  dramatization,  or  playing  the  story  pre- 
pares him  to  read  with  appreciation  and  expression, 
since  it  makes  the  situation  real  to  him.  He  sees  the 
characters  act,  he  hears  them  talk,  in  fact,  he  lives  the 
story.  The  thoughtful  teacher  will  use  dramatization 
as  much  as  possible  in  her  reading  work,  dramatizing  all 
stories  and  rhymes  which  contain  the  dramatic  element. 

There  are  two  forms  of  dramatization  used  in  the 
schoolroom.  One  form  may  be  termed  free  or  natural 
dramatization,  in  which  the  child  acts  out  the  story  in 
a  free  manner  without  any  reference  to  the  descriptive 
parts  of  the  story  or  to  the  actual  wording;  the  other 
form  is  similar  to  the  dialogue  in  which  the  parts  are 
assigned   and   each   character  reads   his  part   from   the 


48  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


book,  some  other  member  of  the  class  reading  the 
descriptive  part.  It  is  well  to  plan  to  have  as  many 
children  take  part  as  possible,  changing  the  characters 
frequently. 

Supplementary  Reading.  Fluency  in  reading  comes 
only  through  well  directed  practice.  The  teacher  should 
supplement  the  reading  of  the  required  book  by  extra 
or  supplementary  reading.  The  specific  purposes  of 
this  supplementary  work  are  to  increase  the  child's  skill 
in  grasping  the  thought  of  the  printed  page,  to  insure 
greater  fluency  in  the  oral  expression  of  the  thought, 
and  to  insure  greater  proficiency  in  the  recognition  and 
pronunciation  of  words  and  phrases. 

In  selecting  the  material  for  supplementary  reading 
the  teachers  should  select  something  worth  while — some- 
thing having  literary  merit,  but  at  the  same  time,  of  in- 
terest to  the  child.  It  should  be  easy  reading,  full  of 
dramatic  action,  and  the  English  should  be  unques- 
tioned. Much  of  the  material  for  supplementary  work 
may  be  obtained  from  children's  magazines,  school  jour- 
nals, well-selected  readers,  and  through  conversation  with 
the  child  on  some  interesting  topic. 

Punctuation  and  Capitals.  The  use  of  the  period 
and  the  interrogation  mark  at  the  end  of  the  sentence, 
the  use  of  the  capital  in  the  first  word  of  the  sentence, 
and  in  the  names  of  people  may  be  taught  incidentally  in 
connection  with  reading  during  the  first  year.  When  the 
teacher  has  occasion  to  write  a  sentence  on  the  board  she 
remarks,  "I  am  beginning  this  sentence  with  a  capital 
letter  for  that  is  the  way  we  begin  a  sentence.',  This  may 
be  varied  by  asking,  "With  what  kind  of  letter  should  I 
begin  this  sentence?''  or  "Why  do  I  begin  this  sentence 
with  a  capital  letter?"     As  she  finishes  writing  the  sen- 


Reading  49 


tence  she  says,  "I  will  place  a  period  here  to  show  that 
this  is  all  of  the  sentence,"  or  "I  will  place  a  question 
mark  here  to  show  that  this  is  a  question."  The  use 
of  the  capital  for  the  names  of  people  should  be  taught 
in  this  same  incidental  way. 

In  the  second  grade  she  should  teach  the  use  of  the 
quotation  marks  by  leading  the  child  to<  discover  their 
use  as  they  appear  in  the  reading  lessons.  The  use  of 
the  comma  after  words  of  address  may  be  taught  in  the 
same  way.  When  the  child  is  reading  a  poem  he  should 
be  led  to  discover  that  each  line  begins  with  a  capital. 

In  the  third  grade  the  incidental  work  of  the  first  and 
second  grades  should  be  reviewed,  and  the  rule  that  the 
names  of  the  week  begin  with  capitals,  but  that  the  names 
of  the  seasons  do  not,  should  be  added. 

Script  and  Print.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  the  time  for  teaching  script  and  print  to  a  begin- 
ning class.  Some  would  teach  print  only;  some  script 
only;  while  others  would  teach  the  script  and  print 
together.  If  it  were  practicable,  it  would  seem  best  to 
teach  only  print  at  first,  as  all  the  reading  matter  with 
which  the  child  comes  in  contact  is  printed.  Then,  in  the 
early  lessons,  one  of  the  aims  is  to  make  him  familiar 
with  the  words  found  in  the  vocabulary  of  his  first  book. 
It  would  seem  better  to  teach  these  words  in  the  form  in 
which  they  occur  in  the  book.  In  the  absence  of  the 
proper  equipment  for  printing,  a  compromise  may  be 
made  by  using  the  script  on  the  board  and  having  the 
printed  perception  cards  for  the  drill  work. 

Alphabet.  Through  the  work  in  phonics  and  pen- 
manship the  child  gradually  learns  to  recognize  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  in  irregular  order.  This  is  all  that  is 
necessary  for  present  needs.     He  does  not  have  a  prac- 


50  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

tical  need  for  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet  in  regular 
order  until  he  begins  to  use  the  dictionary,  the  telephone 
directory,  the  city  directory,  the  index  of  a  book,  or  a 
card  catalogue.  These  needs  are  not  likely  to  arise  be- 
f or  the  third  school  year ;  hence,  so  far  as  utility  is  con- 
cerned, this  would  be  the  proper  time  for  teaching  the 
alphabet  in  its  regular  order.  As  a  concession  to  public 
opinion,  many  primary  teachers  find  it  advisable  to  teach 
the  alphabet  in  regular  order  by  the  close  of  the  first 
year. 

Standard  in  Reading.  A  standard  by  which  to 
measure  progress  is  very  helpful  in  any  work.  The 
standard  in  primary  reading  is  fluency  in  the  gathering  of 
the  thought  of  the  printed  page  and  fluency  in  the  oral 
expression  of  this  thought.  If  the  subject-matter  is 
well  selected  as  to  thought  and  word  content,  this  is  not 
too  high  a  standard  for  the  average  primary  class. 

REFERENCES 

McMurry,  Elementary  School  Standards 
Coe  and  Christie,  Story  Hour  Manual 
Klapper,  Teaching  Children  to  Read 
Arnold,  Reading,  How  to  Teach  It 
McMurry,  A  Method  for  Teaching  Primary  Reading 
School  Methods  Co.,  New  Primary  Methods 
Briggs  and  Coffman,  Reading  \n  the  Public  Schools 
Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 
Huey,  The  Psychology  and  Pedagogy  of  Reading    . 
Baker,  Carpenter,  and  Scott,  The  Teaching  of  Elementary 
English 
Jenkins,  Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades 


CHAPTER  V 
FRE-PRIMER  WORK 

(reading — continued) 

AIM 

Opinion  varies  as  to  the  proper  time  for  placing  the 
book  in  the  hands  of  the  child.  In  some  methods  of  read- 
ing, he  has  the  book  from  the  first  day,  in  others,  not  for 
some  weeks.  This  latter  procedure  is  based  on  the  theory 
that  he  has  not  learned  to  recognize  words,  and  so  has 
little  use  for  a  book. 

The  ability  to  recognize  words  is  an  essential  element 
in  independent  reading,  and  until  the  child  becomes 
familiar  with  a  few  words  he  cannot  read  independently. 
Many  teachers  have  found  that  it  is  better  to  have  these 
early  reading  lessons  from  the  blackboard  or  from  the 
home-made  chart.  By  using  the  board  or  chart  she  is 
better  able  to  hold  the  interest  of  the  class  and  to  con- 
centrate the  attention  on  the  desired  points.  If  the  child 
has  a  book  at  first,  he  is  likely  to  lose  interest  in  it  long 
before  he  can  read,  and  it  often  results  in  the  formation 
of  incorrect  habits  in  reading. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

However,  the  teacher  does  not  delay  the  reading  proc- 
ess until  the  child  has  learned  a  vocabulary  sufficient; 
for  independent  reading,  but  the  first  few  weeks  of  the 

51 


52  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

beginning  year  are  spent  in  preparing  him  for  the  work 
with  the  book.  The  vocabulary,  of  the  first  fifteen  or 
twenty  pages  of  the  first  book  to  be  read  is  taught 
through  the  use  of  stories,  rhymes,  poems,  games,  and 
conversations. 

The  story,  rhyme,  or  poem  selected  should  contain 
three  or  more  of  the  words  found  in  this  vocabulary. 
The  words  need  not  be  taught  in  the  order  found  in  the 
book,  but  may  be  grouped  to  fit  the  material  selected. 

The  following  rhymes,  and  list  of  stories  are  interest- 
ing and  eminently  suitable  for  these  early  lessons. 

Rhymes 

"Jack  be  nimble, 
Jack  be  quick, 
Jack  jumped  over  the  candle  stick." 

"Little  Boy  Blue,  come  blow  your  horn, 
The  sheep  are  in  the  meadow, 
The  cows  are  in  the  corn. 
Where  is  the  little  boy 
Who  looks  after  the  sheep? 
He  is  under  the  haystack  fast  asleep." 

"Little  Miss  MufTet  sat  on  a  turret, 
Eating  her  curds  and  whey. 
There  came  a  big  spider, 
And  sat  down  beside  her, 
And  frightened  Miss  MufTet  away." 

"Little  Bo-Peep  has  lost  her  sheep, 
And  can't  tell  where  to  find  them. 
Leave  them  alone  and  they'll  come  home, 
Wagging  their  tails  behind  them." 


Pre-Primer  Work  53 

"There  was  an  old  woman  who  lived  in  a  shoe. 
She  had  so  many  children,  she  didn't  know  what  to  do. 
She  gave  them  some  broth  without  any  bread, 
And  whipped  them  all  soundly  and  sent  them  to  bed." 

Stories 

The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain  of  Wheat 

The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Fox 

The  Three  Bears 

The  Three  Pigs 

The  Stories  from  the  Story  Hour  Primer 

The  Stories  from  the  Free  and  Treadwell  Primer 

The  Stories  from  the  Easy  Road  to  Reading  Primer 

METHOD 

This  material  is  first  developed  orally  and  then  used 
as  a  reading  lesson.  As  a  rule  the  teacher  will  find  it 
a  good  plan  to  correlate  these  early  lessons  with  the 
language  work.  All  the  oral  work  in  connection  with 
the  story,  rhyme,  or  poem  may  be  carried  forward  in  the 
language  period.  This  oral  work  should  precede  the 
oral  reading  by  two  or  more  days.  The  child  should  be 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  part  of  the  story  or  the  poem 
to  be  read  before  he  is  allowed  to  read  it. 

Illustrative  Lessons 

First  Grade 

I.  Subject:  Language.  (Preparatory  to  the  reading 
of  the  rhyme.) 

II.  Topic:  Mother  Goose  rhyme,  "Little  Miss 
Muffet." 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  to  en- 


54 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


joy  the  rhyme.     (2)  To  help  him  to  memorize  the  rhyme 
as  a  basis  for  a  later  reading  lesson. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  decide  if  he  would  have 
acted  as  Little  Miss  Muffet  did.  (2)  To  picture  men- 
tally the  scene  of  the  rhyme.  (3)  To  dramatize  the 
rhyme. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 
1 
Experiences   with    spi- 
ders. 


Procedure 
1 

Preparation:  "Are  you  afraid  of 
spiders?  If  a  spider  should  come  up 
and  stop  beside  you,  would  you  be 
frightened?  What  does  frightened 
mean?" 


Little  Miss  Muffet  sat  on 
a  tuffet, 
Eating  her   curds   and 
whey. 
There  came  a  big  spider 
And  sat  down  beside  her, 
And    frightened    Miss 
Muffet  away. 


Presentation:  "Listen  to  what 
the  little  girl  did  in  this  rhyme  and 
decide  if  you  would  have  acted  as 
she  did."  The  teacher  repeats  the 
rhyme.  "What  did  Little  Miss  Muf- 
fet do?  Would  you  have  done  as 
she  did? 

"Shut  your  eyes  while  I  repeat  it 
again  and  see  if  you  can  imagine 
that  you  see  Little  Miss  Muffet  and 
the  spider."  The  teacher  repeats  the 
rhyme.  "Did  you  see  Little  Miss 
Muffet?  What  did  she  look  like? 
Who  saw  the  spider?  Where  was 
Little  Miss  Muffet  sitting?  What 
is  a  tuffet?  What  was  she  eating? 
What  are  curds  and  whey? 

"Shut  your  eyes  while  I  repeat  it 
again  and  see  if  you  can  imagine 
you  see  her  sitting  on  a  tuffet,  eat- 
ing her  curds  and  whey."  She  re- 
peats the  first  three  lines.     "Did  you 


Pre-Primer  Work 


55 


see  her?  Let  me  see  if  one  of  you 
can  tell  us  where  Little  Miss  Muf- 
fet  was  and  what  she  was  doing, 
using  the  words  of  the  rhyme."  She 
calls  on  several  different  children  to 
repeat   these   three   lines. 

"Let  me  see  if  I  can  make  you 
imagine  you  see  the  big  spider  that 
sat  down  beside  her."  The  teacher 
repeats  the  last  three  lines.  "Did 
you  see  the  big  spider?  What  did 
it  do?  Then  what  did  Miss  Muffet 
do?  Who  can  tell  us  about  the  spi- 
der, using  the  exact  words  of  the 
rhyme?"  The  teacher  has  several 
different  children  to  repeat  the  last 
three  lines  of  the  rhyme. 


The     reproduction     of 
the  entire  rhyme. 


Summary:  "Would  you  like  to 
dramatize  or  act  this  rhyme?  What 
characters  shall  we  need?  How  can 
we  remember  which  is  Little  Miss 
Muffet?  Supose  we  let  her  hold 
this  card  which  has  her  name  on  it. 
Here  is  the  spider's  name  for  him 
to  hold.  What  else  do  we  need? 
What  shall  we  use  for  a  tuffet? 
What. shall  we  use  for  the  bowl  of 
curds  and  whey?  Let  us  repeat  the 
rhyme  in  concert  while  Little  Miss 
Muffet  and  the  spider  act  their 
parts."  The  rhyme  may  be  drama- 
tized several  times,  changing  char- 
acters each  time. 


The  reproduction  of  the 
rhyme  for  the  mother. 


Application:   "Repeat  this  rhyme 
for  your  mother." 


56  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

First  Grade 

I.  Subject:  Reading. 

II.  Topic:  "Little  Miss  Muffet." 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  lead  the  child  to  real- 
ize that  to  read  means  acquiring  stories,  poems,  and 
rhymes.  (2)  To  have  him  read  from  the  blackboard  or 
the  chart,  the  Mother  Goose  rhyme,  "Little  Miss  Muffet." 
(3)  To  have  him  learn  to  recognize  at  sight,  the  words 
sat,  on,  he,  and  came.  (These  words  are  taken  from  the 
vocabulary  of  the  first  15  pages  of  the  primer.) 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  read  the  rhyme  as  the 
teacher  did.     (2)  To  find  certain  words  in  the  rhyme. 

V.  Class  Mechanics:  (1)  The  rhyme  should  be  writ- 
ten on  the  board  or  printed  on  a  chart,  with  a  decided 
space  between  each  word.  In  the  beginning  the  child 
does  not  have  the  ability  to  differentiate  the  single  word 
from  the  group,  and  for  this  reason  each  word  should 
stand  out  vividly.  (2)  The  child  should  not  be  permitted 
to  point  at  the  separate  words  in  reading,  as  this  will 
result  in  the  words,  rather  than  the  phrase  and  sentence, 
being  the  unit  of  thought.  This  rule  does  not  apply 
when  the  search  for  words  begins,  as  the  purpose  of  this 
is  not  reading  but  to  find  the  words — this  second  reading 
being  merely  a  means  to  the  end. 

VI.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1  1 

The  recall  of  the  home  Preparation:  "How  many  of  you 
experiences  with  the  repeated  the  rhyme  for  your  moth- 
rhyme,  er?    Where  do  you  suppose  I  found 

this  rhyme?  How  did  I  know  what 
it  was  about?  Would  you  like  to 
read  it  as  I  did?" 


Pre-Primer  Work 


57 


Little  Miss  Muffet  sat  on 
a  tuffet, 
Eating  her  curds   and 
whey. 
There  came  a  big  spider 
And  sat  down  beside  her, 
And    frightened    Miss 
Muffet  away. 


sat 
on 
he 
came 


Presentation:  "Here  it  is  on  the 
board  (or  chart).  Who  will  read 
it  for  me?"  The  teacher  has  it  read 
by  individual  children.  She  indi- 
cates each  part  as  it  is  read  by  plac- 
ing a  pointer  under  the  entire  length 
of  the  line.  Then  the  rhyme  may 
be  read  in  two  sections  by  having 
one  child  read  the  section  that  tells 
what  Little  Miss  Muffet  was  doing, 
and  another  read  the  section  about 
the   spider. 

"Who  will  read  the  part  that  tells 
where  Little  Miss  Muffet  sat?  Who 
will  read  the  part  that  tells  what 
she  was  doing?  Who  will  read  the 
part  that  tells  what  the  spider  did? 
Then  read  the  part  that  tells  about 
Miss  Muffet's  being  frightened. 
Show  me  the  part  that  tells  where 
Little  Miss  Muffet  sat.  Read  it  for 
me.  X  wonder  who  can  find  where 
it  says  Little  Miss  Muffet  sat  on 
a  tuffet?    Make  a  mark  around  it. 

"I  wonder  if  you  could  find  where 
it  says  sat?"  The  child  is  trained 
to  read  until  he  comes  to  the  word 
sat.  He  then  makes  a  mark  around 
it.  The  teacher  should  have  percep- 
tion cards  with  the  printed  form  of 
the  word  on  one  side  and  the  writ- 
ten form  on  the  other.  These  cards 
are  placed  with  printed  side  exposed, 
where  they  can  be  seen  by  the  entire 
class-  "I  wonder  if  you  see  a  card 
that  has  sat  on  it?"  When  the  card 
is  selected  the  choice  should  not  be 


58  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

criticized,  but  the  written  side  of  the 
card  should  be  placed  directly  under 
sat  in  the  rhyme,  and  the  child 
should  be  allowed  to  decide  whether 
or  not  it  is  right.  "Who  can  find 
where  it  says  on  in  the  rhyme.  This 
same  plan  should  be  continued  until 
each  clause  or  line  is  pointed  out  and 
all  the  words  are  found.  The  les- 
son should  be  closed  with  a  drill  les- 
son on  these  words.  An  illustra- 
tive drill  lesson  will  be  found  in 
Chapter  VI,  pages  75  to  76. 

First  Grade 

I.  Subject:  Language.     (Preparatory  to  the  reading.) 

II.  Topic:  Story,  "The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain 
of  Wheat." 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  ( 1 )  To  develop  a  love  for  good 
literature.  (2)  To  make  the  child  familiar  with  the 
story  so  that  he  will  be  able  to  read  it.  (3)  To  teach 
him  organization  of  thought  by  having  the  story  told  by 
thought  groups.  (4)  To  prepare  him  for  realistic 
reading  through  dramatization. 

IV.  Child's  Motive.  (1)  To  discover  the  result  of 
laziness.  (2)  To  learn  the  story  so  he  may  tell  it  to 
others.  (3)  To  tell  the  story  in  such  a  way  that  his 
teacher  and  classmates  will  enjoy  it.  (4)  To  act  the 
story  as  he  thinks  it  should  be  acted. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 
Story,  "Hie  Little  Red  Hen." 

"Once  upon  a  time  a  little  red  hen  found  a  grain  of 
wheat.  'Who  will  plant  this  wheat?'  said  she.  'I  will 
not,'  said  the  Rat.  'I  will  not/  said  the  Cat.  'I  will  not,' 
said  the  Pig.  T  will,  then/  said  the  Little  Red  Hen. 
So  she  planted  the  wheat. 


Pre-Primer  Work 


59 


"When  the  wheat  was  ready  to  cut,  the  Little  Red  Hen 
said,  'Who  will  cut  this  wheat?'  'I  will  not,'  said  the 
Rat.  'I  will  not,"  said  the  Cat.  'I  will  not,'  said  the  Pig. 
'I  will,  then,'  said  the  Little  Red  Hen.  So  she  cut  the 
wheat. 

"Then  she  said,  'Who  will  take  this  wheat  to  the 
mill?'  'I  will  not/  said  the  Rat.  'I  will  not,'  said  the 
Cat.  'I  will  not,'. said  the  Pig.  T  will,  then,'  said  the 
Little  Red  Hen.  So  she  took  it  to  the  mill  and  had  it 
made  into  flour. 

"Then  she  said,  'Who  will  make  this  flour  into  bread?' 
'I  will  not,'  said  the  Rat.  T  will  not,'  said  the  Cat.  T 
will  not,'  said  the  Pig.  T  will,  then,'  said  the  Little  Red 
Hen.    And  so  she  made  the  flour  into  bread. 

"Then  she  said,  'Who  will  eat  this  bread?'  T  will,' 
said  the  Rat.  T  will,'  said  the  Cat.  T  will,'  said  the  Pig. 
'No,  you  will  not,'  said  the  Little  Red  Hen,  T  shall  eat 
it  myself,'  and  she  did." 


Subject-Matter 


Procedure 


First  Day 


The  recall  of  experi- 
ences connected  with 
work. 


Preparation:  "Do  you  like  to 
work?  Who  does  the  work  in  your 
home?  Could  you  get  along  if  no 
one  worked?  Why  not?  What  can 
boys  and  girls  do  to  help?  Let  us 
see  what  happened  to  the  folks  in 
this  story  who  would  not  work." 
2 


The    Little    R<ed    Hen 
and  the  Grain  of  Wheat. 


Presentation:  The  teacher  tells 
the  story.  "What  happened  to  them  ? 
Was  that  fair?" 


60 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


1 


The  recall  of  the  story. 


Second  Day 


1 


Preparation:  "What  happened  in 
the  story  of  the  Little  Red  Hen? 
Name  some  of  the  things  that  were 
in  the  story.  Do  you  enjoy  hearing 
me  tell  it?  Would  you  like  to  be 
able  to  tell  it  to  some  one?  What 
must  you  know  before  you  can  tell 
it?" 


The   Little    Red    Hen 
and  the  Grain  of  Wheat. 


1 


Presentation:  "Listen  carefully 
while  I  tell  it  again,  and  then  see  if 
you  do  not  know  it  well  enough  to 
tell  it  to  some  one  who  has  never 
heard  it."  The  teacher  tells  the 
story. 


Third  Day 


1 


The   recall   of   experi-  Preparation:     "Did   you   tell   the 

ences  relating  to  the  re-      story  to  any  one?     Did  he  seem  to 
production  of  the  story.      enjoy  it?" 


The  first  thought  group 
in  the  story. 


Presentation:  "Now  I  want  to 
hear  you  tell  it.  See  if  you  can  make 
us  enjoy  it.  Who  will  come  and  tell 
the  section  about  how  the  wheat  was 
found  and  what  was  done  with  it?" 
The  teacher  has  a  child  come  and 
tell  this  part.  By  calling  on  a  dif- 
ferent child  for  the  different  sections 
of  the  story  a  larger  number  may 
get  the  development  which  comes 
through  the  reproduction  of  stories. 


Pre-Primer  Work 


61 


The     second     thought  "Who  will  come  and  tell  the  sec- 

group,  tion  about  cutting  the  wheat? 

The      third      thought         "Who  will  come  and  tell  the  sec- 
group,  tion   about  taking  the  wheat  to  the 

mill? 

"Who    wants    to    tell    the    section 
about  making  the  bread? 
fifth       thought  "Who   will   tell  ^  the   section   about 

eating  the  bread?" 


The     fourth     thought 


group. 

The 

group. 


Fourth   Day 

The  story  is.  retold  as  on  the  third 
day. 

Fifth  Day 


"How  would  you  like  to  drama- 
tize the  story  of  the  Little  Red  Hen  ? 
What  characters  do  we  need?"  The 
teacher  has  perception  cards  with  the 
names  of  the  characters  printed  or 
written  on  them.  "Mary  may  be  the 
Little  Red  Hen."  She  is  given  the 
card  which  has  Little  Red  Hen 
printed  on  it.  "Joe  may  be  the  cat, 
Frank  the  pig,  and  Helen  the  rat." 
The  teacher  gives  the  cards  with  the 
respective  names  to  each  child.  "You 
may  each  pretend  that  you  are  the 
character  you  represent  and  act  just 
as  you  think  that  character  would 
act"  The  teacher  tells  the  connect- 
ing links  in  the  story,  and  the  chil- 
dren dramatize  it.  If  they  are  very 
much  interested,  the  story  may  be 
dramatized  a  number  of  times.  The 
characters  should  be  changed  each 
time. 


62 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


First  Grade 

I.  Subject:  Reading.    Story  Method. 

II.  Topic:  A  section  of  the  story  of  the  "Little  Red 
Hen  and  the  Grain  of  Wheat." 

III.  Teachers  Motive:  (1)  To  lead  the  child  to 
realize  that  reading  means  the  acquiring  of  stories,  poems; 
and  rhymes.  (2)  To  have  him  read  from  the  blackboard 
or  chart  the  story  of  "The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain 
of  Wheat."  (3)  To  have  him  learn  to  recognize  at 
sight  the  words;  I,  will,  not,  said.  (These  are  words 
found  in  the  vocabulary  of  the  first  15  pages  of  the 
primer.) 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  learn  to  read  stories. 
(2)  To  read  a  section  of  the  story  of  "The  Little  Red 
Hen  and  the  Grain  of  Wheat."  (3)  To  find  certain 
words  in  the  story. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 


Procedure 


A  little  red  hen  found 
a  grain  of  wheat. 


"Do  you  like  the  story  of  the  Lit- 
tle Red  Hen?  Would  you  like  to 
read  stories?  Suppose  we  read  a 
section  of  this  story?  I  have  it  here 
on  the  board  (or  chart). 

"Who  is  ready  to  read  the  sentence 
that  tells  what  the  Little  Red  Hen 
found?"  The  teacher  has  a  child 
read  as  she  places  a  pointer  under 
the  entire  length  of  the  sentence.  The 
child  should  not  be  allowed  to  point 
at  the  individual  words  except  when 
he  is  hunting  a  certain  word  in  the 
sentence.  Pointing  out  each  word 
causes  word-reading  instead  of 
thought-reading. 


Pre-Primer  Work 


63 


"Who  will  plant  this 
wheat?"   she   said- 

"I  will  not,"  said  the 
Rat. 


"I   will  not,"   said  the 
Cat. 

"I.  will   not,"   said   the 
Pig. 

.  "I  will,  then,"  said  the 
Little  Red  Hen.  So  she 
planted  the  wheat. 


I 

will 
not 
said 


"What  did  the  Little  Red  Hen 
say?"    A  child  reads  the  sentence. 

"What  did  the  R&t  say?"  A  child 
reads  the  sentence.  If  he  leaves  out 
"said  the  Rat,"  the  teacher  should 
ask,  "Who  said  that?"  and  allow  him 
to  add  "said  the  Rat." 

The  teacher  continues  by  asking 
questions  until  the  entire  lesson  is 
read. 

If  there  is  time  the  other  sections 
of  the  story  should  be  read,  or  a  child 
may  reread  the  first  section  of  the 
story.  In  the  reading,  the  teacher 
will  usually  find  it  necessary  to  ask 
a  question  about  each  sentence  to 
serve  as  a  guide  in  reading  that  spe- 
cial sentence. 

After  reading  the  story,  certain 
words  are  to  be  taught  as  sight 
words.  "Read  the  sentence  about 
finding  the  wheat.  What  did  the 
Little  Red  Hen  say?  Who  can  find 
where  it  says  will  in  this  sentence?" 
The  child  should  be  trained  to  read 
until  he  comes  to  the  desired  word 
and  then  stop.  Before  asking  him 
to  find  a  certain  word,  the  teacher 
will  usually  find  it  better  to  call  the 
child's  attention  to  the  sentence  con- 
taining the  word,  as  in  the  above 
instance.  "Do  you  see  will  in  an- 
other sentence?"  The  word  will  is 
pointed  out  in  the  other  sentences. 
If  the  story  is  on  the  board,  the 
child  is  allowed  to  place  a  mark  en- 
tirely around  the  word.  This  sets 
the  word  off  from  the  other  words, 
and  makes  it  easier  for  him  to  see 


64  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

it  as  a  separate  unit.  "Do  you  see 
will  on  a  card?" 

Each  sight  word  should  be  on  a 
perception  card.  If  the  story  is  on 
the  blackboard,  it  will  be  best  to 
have  the  word  printed  on  one  side 
and  written  on  the  other.  The  printed 
side  is  exposed,  but  the  child  is 
trained  to  reverse  the  card  for  a 
more  accurate  comparison  with  the 
word  in  the  written  story.  The 
printed  side  is  used  in  all  the  drill 
lessons.  After  a  few  weeks  the  teach- 
er will  find  that  the  child  will  not 
need  to  have  the  written  word  on 
the  card,  inasmuch  as  he  can  success- 
fully compare  the  printed  word  with 
the  written  word  on  the  board. 

If  the  child  chooses  the  wrong  card, 
he  should  not  be  corrected,  but  al- 
lowed to  discover  his  own  mistake 
by  comparing  it  with  the  word  in  the 
story.  If  the  teacher  will  follow  this 
rule,  she  will  help  him  to  form  the 
very  valuable  habit  of  depending 
upon  himself. 

"What  did  the  Rat  say?  Read  the 
entire  sentence.  Who  can  find  where 
it  says  If"  The  plan  used  in  devel- 
oping the  word  will  is  used  in  de- 
veloping 7,  not,  and  said.  After  all 
the  words  are  developed  there  should 
be  a  drill  lesson  on  these  words  to 
help  fix  them  in  mind.  An  illustra- 
tive drill  lesson  will  be  given  in  Chap- 
ter VI,  pages  75  to  76. 


Pre-Primer  Work 


65 


First  Grade 

I.  Subject:  Reading.     Conversation  Method. 

II.  Topic:  The  Story  of  an  Excursion. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (l)To  give  the  child  an  ad- 
ditional interest  in  reading  by  allowing  him  to  compose  a 
story  and  then  read  it.  (2)  To  teach  him  that  reading 
is  always  thought-getting.  (3)  To  have  him  learn  to 
recognize   at   sight,   the   words:   went,  some,   and   red. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  develop  an  oral  story  of 
the  excursion  to  tell  to  his  mother.  (2)  To  compose  the 
story  so  that  it  may  be  written  on  the  board.  (3)  To 
read  the  story.     (4)  To  find  certain  words  in  the  story. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 


1 

The  recall  of  experi- 
ences connected  with  the 
excursion. 


Procedure 

The  teacher  and  the  children  have 
just  returned  from  an  excursion  to 
the  woods,  where  they  found  many 
beautifully  colored  autumn  leaves. 


Preparation:  "How  many  en- 
joyed our  excursion?  Let  us  name 
the  different  things  we  found.  Which 
leaves  do  you  like  best?  Do  you 
like  to  go  on  excursions?  What  will 
you  tell  your  mother  about  it?  What 
do  you  think  we  should  tell  her  first? 
Yes,  tell  her  what  we  did.  What 
shall  we  tell  her  next?  Yes,  sh'e  will 
want  to  know  where  we  went.  What 
shall  we  tell  her  next?  Yes,  let  us 
tell  her  what  we  found.  Then  what 
do  you  think  she  will  want  to  know? 
Yes,  let  us  tell  her  which  leaves  we 
liked    best    and    what    we    did    with 


66 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


them.  Then,  I  wonder  if  she  will  not 
want  to  know  if  we  like  to  go  on 
an  excursion? 

"Who  will  tell  the  story  of  our 
excursion  as  you  will  tell  it  to 
mother?" 


We   went   on   an   ex- 
cursion. 


We  went  to  the  woods. 

We  found  some  red 
leaves. 

We  found  some  yel- 
low leaves. 

We  found  some  green 
leaves. 

We  liked  the  red 
leaves   best. 

We  brought  some  red 
and  yellow  leaves  back 
with  us. 

WTe  decorated  the 
room  with  them. 

We  like  to  go  on  ex- 
cursions. 


Presentation:  "Do  you  not  think 
it  would  be  nice  to  write  our  story 
on  the  board?  What  did  we  tell 
first?  I  will  begin  this  sentence  with 
a  capital  letter,  since  that  is  the 
way  we  begin  sentences,  and  then  I 
will  place  a  period  here  to  show  that 
I  am  through."  Some  similar  re- 
mark should  be  made  about  the  be- 
ginning and  ending  of  each  sentence. 
In  this  incidental  way,  the  correct 
habit  of  writing  a  sentence  may  be 
established. 

"What  did  we  tell  next?  Don't 
you  think  people  will  want  to  know 
where  we  went?  How  shall  we  say 
this?  What  did  we  tell  next?  Yes, 
we  told  what  we  found.  How  shall 
we  say  this? 

"What  did  we  tell  about  which  kind 
we  liked  best?  How  shall  we  say 
this?" 

"What  next?  How  shall  we  tell 
them  about  the  leaves  we  brought 
back  with  us?  Do  you  not  think  it 
will  be  interesting  to  tell  th'em  about 
what  we  did  with  our  leaves?  What 
did  we  say  about  liking  to  go  on  ex- 
cursions? 

"Suppose  we  read  our  story?  What 


went 


red 


Pre-Primer  Work  67 

did  we  say  we  did?"  The  first  sen- 
tence should  be  read  by  placing  the 
pointer  under  its  entire  length. 
"Where  did  we  go?"  A  child  reads 
the  sentence.  "What  color  of  leaves 
did  we  find  first?"  The  sentence  is 
read.  "What  about  the  yellow 
leaves  ?"  A  child  reads  the  sentence. 
"What  about  the  green  leaves?"  The 
sentence  is  read.  "Which  leaves  did 
we  like  best?"  A  child  reads  the 
sentence.  The  other  sentences  are 
read  in  a  similar  way. 

"What  did  we  do?"  The  first  sen- 
tence should  be  re-read.  "Who  can 
some  point  to  the   word   that  says   zventf 

Do  you  see  it  in  another  sentence? 
Who  can  find  went  on  the  cards  ? 

'Where  did  we  go?"  The  sentence 
should  be  re-read.  "What  about  the 
red  leaves?"  A  child  re-reads  the 
sentence.  "Find  where  it  says  some." 
Each  word  is  developed  in  a  similar 
way.  The  lesson  should  be  closed 
with  a  drill  lesson  on  the  words, 
went,  some,  and  red.  (See  Chapter 
VI,  pages  75  to  76. 

First  Grade 

I.  Subject:     Silent  Reading  Recitation. 

II.  Topic:  Run,  Jump. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  To  help  the  child  to  under- 
stand that  reading  is  thought-getting. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:   (1)  To  guess  what  the  teacher 
said.     (2)  To  dramatize  the  sentences  on  the  cards. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


68 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Subject-Matter 

1 

A  guessing  game  and 
the  recall  of  experiences 
which  make  necessary 
the  reading  of  written 
language. 


Procedure 

1 

Preparation:  "How  many  of  you 
are  good  guessers?  I  am  going  to 
whisper  to  Mary  to  do  something 
and  when  she  does  it  I  want  to  see 
if  you  can  guess  what  I  said  to  her." 
The  teachers  whispers  to  Mary  to 
run.  "Who  can  guess  what  "I  said 
to  her?  Could  I  tell  you  to  run  in 
any  other  way  than  to  say  it?  How 
do  you  tell  Santa  Claus  what  you 
want  for  Christmas?" 


run  Presentation: "I  have  run  printed 

on  this  card  and  when  I  show  it  to 

J      P  you  I  want  you  to  run."     The  word 

should  be  printed  with  proper  capi- 
tal and  punctuation  mark.  Even  if 
a  sentence  has  only  one  word  it 
should  be  properly  capitalized  and 
punctuated.  The  teacher  shows  the 
card  and  has  a  number  of  the  chil- 
dren to  run.  Jump  should  be  devel- 
oped in  the  same  way.  She  shows 
first  on'e  card  and  then  the  other  and 
has  a  child  to  act  out  each  one  in 
turn. 

Any  word  that  is  unknown  to  the  child  must  be  intro- 
duced orally  before  he  can  be  expected  to  recognize  it. 
The  following  sentences  are  offered  as  suggestions  of 
sentences  which  may  be  used  in  silent  reading.  Run. 
Jump.  Come  to  me.  Jump  to  me.  Run  to  a  boy.  Run 
to  the  table.     Run  to  the  door.    Jump  to  me.    Jump  to 


Pre-Primer  Work  69 

a  boy.  Jump  to  a  table.  Jump  to  the  door.  Sing.  Hop. 
Dance.     Skip.     Fly. 

The  child  should  not  be  confused  by  giving  new  sen- 
tences too  often.  The  aim  is  not  that  of  teaching  new 
words  but  that,  of  getting  the  thought  of  the  sentence. 
By  using  little  games  and  devices,  several  days  may  be 
spent  on  the  same  sentence. 

When  the  child  takes  up  the  book,  the  silent  reading 
should  be  used  whenever  an  opportunity  offers.  If  the 
sentence  is  imperative,  he  may  read  it  silently  then  act 
it  out;  if  it  is  an  interrogative  sentence  he  may  read  it 
silently,  then  answer  the  question;  if  the  sentence  can 
be  illustrated  he  may  read  it  silently  and  then  illustrate 
it  by  drawing,  or  paper  cutting. 

For  the  early  lessons  in  Phonics,  the  student  is  referred 
to  Chapter  VII,  pages  88  to  94. 

REFERENCES 

McMurray,  Elementary  School  Standards 

Spaulding  and  Bryce,  Learning  to  Read 

Coe  and  Christie,  The  Story  Hour  Manual 

Jenkins,  Reading  in  the   Primary  Grades 

Briggs  and  Coffman,  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  DRILL  LESSON 

(reading — continued) 

AIM 

The  ideal  way  for  the  child  to  learn  to  recognize  the 
word  and  the  phonic  symbols  would  be  through  their  use 
in  the  subject-matter  of  the  reading  lessons.  However, 
this  has  not  been 'satisfactorily  accomplished.  Wherever 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  leave  word  mastery  to  the 
repetition  of  the  word  in  the  context,  the  subject-matter 
has  suffered.  It  is  either  choppy  and  pedantic  because  of 
the  necessity  for  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  words, 
or  else  the  thought-getting  process  has  suffered.  This 
is  due  to  the  inability  of  the  child  to  recognize  words 
automatically.  If  he  is  to  be  left  free  to  give  his  entire 
time  and  attention  to  the  thought,  the  mastery  of  words 
is  an  essential  element  in  the  reading  process. 

The  recognition  of  the  important  words  of  the  vocabu- 
lary of  the  lessons  that  the  child  reads  should  be  reduced 
to  an  automatic  basis.  It  is  the  function  of  the  drill 
lesson  to  accomplish  this.  The  teacher's  mistake  is  not 
that  she  does  such  work  too  well,  but  that  she  makes  it 
the  final  end  of  the  reading  lesson.  She  leads  the  child 
to  believe  that  he  can  read  when  he  is  merely  able  to 
pronounce  words. 

70 


The  Drill  Lesson  71 

METHOD 

Constant  drill  upon  word  groups,  sight  words,  and 
phonetic  sounds  is  necessary  until  the  recognition  is 
mechanical,  allowing  the  child  to  give  his  entire  attention 
to  the  thought.  These  drills  should  be  carried  on  at  a 
period  apart  from  the  regular  reading  recitation. 

THE  LESSON  PLAN 

As  previously  stated,  the  essential  points  in  an  intelli- 
gently conducted  drill  are  (l)a  motive,  (2)  a  clear  idea 
of  the  desired  response,  (3)  attentive  repetition,  (4)  no 
exceptions  in  the  correct  response,  (5)  reviews,  and  (6) 
application. 

1.  Motive.  Much,  of  the  drill  work  on  words, 
phrases,  and  phonetic  symbols  is  wasted  time  because  the 
child  does  not  see  the  use  or  feel  the  need  for  the  desired 
habit,  consequently  he  feels  little  interest  in  the  accomp- 
lishment of  the'  results  demanded.  It  has  already  been 
shown  that  a  motive  or  aim  will  add  interest  to  the  learn- 
ing process  and  result  in  a  saving  of  time  and  energy. 
The  stronger  and  more  interesting  this  motive,  the  better 
the  attention  will  be,  and  the  sooner  will  the  desired 
results  be  attained. 

If  the  conditions  were  ideal  the  drill  work  should  come 
when  the  child  realizes  that  his  future  progress  in  read- 
ing depends  upon  the  instantaneous  recognition  of  the 
words.  The  teacher  should  lead  him  to  see  and  feel  this 
need;  for  instance,  after  the  new  words  of  the  next 
day's  reading  lesson  have  been  presented  by  some  ap- 
proved method,  the  next  step  is  a  drill  on  these  words, 
with  the  purpose  to  make  their  recognition  automatic. 

The  teacher  may   supply  a  motive  in  the   following 


72  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


manner :  "Boys  and  girls,  do  you  know  that  these  words 
which  we  have  just  found  in  the  sentences  will  be  in 
tomorrow's  reading  lesson?  What  should  we  do  if  we 
want  to  be  able  to  read  our  lesson  without  help?  Yes, 
we  must  be  able  to  recognize  them  instantly  wherever  we 
see  them.  Let  us  see,  then,  how  quickly  we  can  learn 
them."  This  is  the  highest  type  of  motive  and  should 
be  used  frequently.  It  may  be  supplemented  by  the 
desire  to  play  a  game  which  involves  the  recognition  of 
the  words  or  phonetic  symbols. 

2.  A  Clear  Idea  of  the  Response.  A  clear  idea  of 
the  response  to  be  drilled  on  is  a  very  essential  factor  in 
the  drill  lesson.  In  a  drill  on  words  and  phrases  the 
teacher  should  see  that  the  child  hears  the  words  cor- 
rectly, can  pronounce  them  correctly,  and  knows  their 
meaning  or  use  in  the  sentence.  She  should. also  make 
sure  that  he  visualizes  the  words  correctly.  In  a  drill  on 
phonetic  sounds  she  should  make  sure  that  he  hears  the 
sound  correctly,  that  he  utters  it  correctly,  and  that  he 
visualizes  the  symbol  correctly.  It  is  a  wise  teacher  who 
takes  every  precaution  to  avoid  error  in  drill. 

3.  Attentive  Repetition.  In  order  to  establish  a 
habit  permanently  there  must  be  many  repetitions  of  the 
desired  response.  This  repetition  must  be  with  the  full 
attention  inasmuch  as  repetition  without  direct  attention 
is  a  great  loss  of  time. 

Even  when  a  child  has  a  strong  motive  with  which  to 
start,  it  is  a  difficult  task  to  hold  his  attention  while  the 
necessary  repetition  is  going  on.  Strayer1  says,  "No 
matter  how  strong  the  motive  with  which  we  start,  any 
one  of  us  will  grow  weary  when  the  task  imposed  requires 
many  repetitions.     It  is  even  more  difficult  for  children 

*A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching-  Process. 


The  Drill  Lesson  73 


to  keep  their  attention  fixed  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.  We  must,  therefore,  plan  carefully  to  conduct 
the  drill  in  such  a  way  that  the  maximum  of  attention 
may  be  secured.,,  The  use  of  little  games,  devices,  and 
other  variations  in  procedure  will  assist  greatly  in  secur- 
ing this  attention. 

Not  only  does  the  game  or  device  hold  the  attention 
better  but  it  has  the  added  advantage  of  making  use  of 
the  law  of  association,  which  is  an  important  element 
in  the  formation  of  a  habit. 

The  drill  should  be  short  and  snappy  if  the  attention 
is  of  a  desirable  type.  When  the  interest  begins  to  wane 
the  drill  should  be  stopped  or  the  method  of  procedure 
changed.  It  is  much  more  profitable  to  have  two  short 
interesting  drills  than  one  of  longer  duration  without 
the  full  attention. 

a.  Devices.  Cards  made  of  stiff  paper  or  tag-board 
are  indispensable  in  drill  work.  Upon  these  cards  the 
words  or  sounds  should  be  printed  or  written  in  type 
large  enough  to  be  seen  readily  across  the  room.  These 
may  be  either  purchased  from  the  company  publishing 
the  basal  reader  or  made  by  the  teacher.  For  this  work 
she  would  need  the  Rubber  Type  Chart  Outfit.  This  may 
be  purchased  from  A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago. 

Many  devices  and  games  for  drill  lessons  will  be  found 
in  primary  school  journals.  The  following  devices  are 
good: 

(1)  Cards  are  pinned  where  they  can  be  easily  seen. 
Two  children  are  given  a  pointer  each.  The  game  is  to 
see  which  can  first  touch  the  word  or  sound  named  by 
the  teacher. 

(2)  The  teacher  holds  the  card  before  the  class  for 


74  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


an  instant,  then   removes  it  and  calls  on  some  one   to 
name  it. 

(3)  Three  or  more  children  stand  in  a  row,  facing 
the  class.  A  word-card  is  given  to  each.  When  the 
teacher  names  a  card,  the  child  holding  that  card  turns 
around. 

(4)  The  teacher  exposes  a  card  for  an  instant,  then 
calls  on  some  one  to  name  the  card.  If  he  answers  cor- 
rectly, he  is  given  the  card.  The  game  is  to  see  who 
can  get  the  most  cards. 

(5)  Postman.  One  child  is  selected  for  the  postman 
or  mail-carrier.  The  cards  represent  letters.  The  post- 
man passes  around  the  class,  leaving  a  letter  (card)  on 
certain  desks.  Each  child  who  receives  a  letter  comes 
before  the  class  and  reads  (names)  his  letter.  The  post- 
man is  changed  and  the  game  proceeds  as  before. 

4.  No  Exceptions.  The  first  repetition  should  be 
so  planned  that  there  will  be  little  opportunity  for  error. 
The  habit  of  guessing  in  a  drill  should  never  be  per- 
mitted, since  every  error  makes  the  work  of  fixing  the 
correct  habit  more  difficult.  The  child  should  be  trained 
to  recognize  when  he  does  not  know  a  word  or  symbol. 

5.  Reviews.  If  the  recognition  of  the  words, 
phrases,  or  phonic  sounds  is  to  become  a  permanent 
habit,  it  is  necessary  to  continue  this  repetition  from  time 
to  time  until  the  recognition  becomes  automatic.  The 
time  should  vary  with  the  relative  difficulty  and  impor- 
tance of  the  different  words  and  sounds.  If  the  teacher 
has  the  purpose  of  the  drill  in  mind  she  should  readily 
recognize  when  it  has  been  accomplished. 

6.  Application.  If  the  motive  established  in  the 
drill  lesson  is  to  be  a  vital  one,  the  lesson  or  series  of 
lessons   should  end  in  the  step  of  application.     If  the 


The  Drill  Lesson  75 

motive  is  to  enable  him  to  read  the  new  lesson,  he  should 
study  the  lesson.  If  the  motive  is  to  play  a  game,  the 
lesson  should  end  by  the  playing  of  the  game. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSON 

First  Grade 

I.,  Topic:  went,  found,  some.  These  words  have 
been  developed  by  the  conversation  method,  Chapter  V, 
pages  65  to  67,  and  the  children  are  ready  for  a  drill 
lesson. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  teach  the  child  to 
recognize  the  words  instantly,  as  a  preparation  for  the 
book  or  for  a  new  lesson  in  the  book. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  learn  the  words  so  that 
he  may  study  his  lesson  or  read  his  book.  (2)  To  play 
the  game. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

went  "Boys  and  girls,  do  you  know  that 

found  these  words  are  in  your  new  lesson? 

some  Don't   you   think   it   will   be   a   good 

plan  to  learn  them  so  that  you  may 
study  your  lesson  without  help?"  If 
the  children  have  not  taken  up  the 
book  the  teacher  may  proceed  as  fol- 
lows :  "Boys  and  girls,  do  you  know 
that  these  words  are  in  the  book  we 
are  going  to  read?  And  do  you  not 
want  to  be  able  to  read  your  book? 
Then  let  us  see  how  quickly  we  can 
learn  them."  The  teacher  has  a 
minute  or  two  of  concert  drill.  "I 
want  two  children  to  come  and  see 
which    can    first    touch    the    word    I 


76  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


name.  The  one  that  wins  may  give 
the  pointer  to  some  one  else."  Each 
of  these  two  children  takes  a  pointer 
and  the  teacher  calls  the  words  thus : 
"went,  found,  went,  some,  found, 
went,  some,  found."  The  game  is 
continued  until  these  two  seem  to 
know  the  words.  Then  the  chil- 
dren are  changed  and  the  game  pro- 
ceeds  as   before. 


The  drill  lessons  on  phonics  will  be  given  in  Chapter 
VII,  pages  88  to  94. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Earhart,  Types  of  Teaching 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 

Briggs  and  Coffman,  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools 

Jenkins,  Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades 

Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 


CHAPTER  VII 

PHONICS 

(reading — continued) 

AIM 

The  final  efficiency  of  any  method  of  teaching  reading 
is  considerably  decreased  if  it  does  not  develop  the  power 
for  independent  reading. 

Since  a  great  many  of  the  words  of  the  English  lan- 
guage are  phonetic  in  their  form,  a  knowledge  of  their 
elementary  sounds  should  enable  the  child  to  pass  to  the 
independent  stage  in  the  reading  process.  In  other  words, 
a  knowledge  of  these  sounds  should  help  him  to  recog- 
nize wTords  new  to  his  eye  but  already  in  his  spoken 
vocabulary.  This  process  is  usually  designated  as 
phonics. 

The  subject  of  phonics  as  a  part  of  the  process  of 
teaching  a  child  to  read,  may  be  defined  as  the  teaching 
of  the  sounds  of  letters  and  groups  of  letters  and  the 
training  of  the  child  to  use  this  knowledge  in  making  out 
for  himself  the  unknown  phonetic  words  of  his  reading 
lessons. 

The  aim  of  the  phonic  work  is  (1)  to  train  the  child 
to  hear  words  correctly;  (2)  to  help  him  gain  control 
over  the  organs  of  speech  necessary  to  clear  articula- 
tion and  correct  enunciation;  and  (3)  to  help  him  gain 
the  power  of  making  out  new  words  for  himself. 

77 


78  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  subject-matter  of  the  phonic  lessons  should  be 
coordinated  with  the  vocabulary  of  the  child's  reading 
book  and  should  consist  of  the  sounds  of  the  letters  and 
groups  of  letters  which  go  to  make  the  phonetic  words  of 
this  vocabulary. 

This  subject-matter  should  consist  of  consonant 
sounds,  diphthongs,  and  sound  families. 

If  the  teacher  will  examine  lists  of  words  she  will  find 
that  many  of  them  will  fall  into  groups  ending  in  the 
same  combination  of  letters  with  the  same  sound;  as 
may,  gay,  ray,  day,  pay.  These  words  are  said  to  belong 
to  a  word  or  sound  family.  In  the  above  instance  the 
word  or  sound  family  would  be  the  ay  (a)  family.  Fol- 
lowing, is  a  suggestive  list  of  word  or  sound  families: 
ick,  ave,  ow  (now),  an,  ad,  un,  id,  ow  (snow),  ame, 
at,  ack,  as,  eep,  ake,  in,  all,  ope,  ore,  ich,  uck,  est,  ung, 
ind,  ound,  eck,  ank,  ouse,  ied,  eat,  oom,  ole,  ong,  ide, 
owl,  ace,  ost,  een,  ain,  ook,  art,  eg,  orn,  ime,  ie,  ind, 
ish,  ane,  air,  ear,  idge,  ue,  ight,  oat,  ood,  oss,  ar,  ath, 
irst,  ush,  isk,  oy,  ool,  unk. 

As  the  aim  of  the  phonetic  work  is  to  train  the  child 
to  independence  in  recognizing  unknown  words  that  are 
meeting  his  eye  daily,  those  sounds  should  be  selected  that 
will  give  him  the  knowledge  which  is  of  immediate  use. 

Course  of  Study 

If  the  teacher  will  carefully  study  the  following  direc- 
tions she  should  find  it  possible  to  make  her  own  outline 
for  the  teaching  of  phonics  in  connection  with  any  book. 

1.     For  the  first  few  weeks,  the  teacher  should  train 


Phonics  79 


the  child  to  hear  the  sound  in  words.  This  should  be 
followed  by  a  training  in  uttering  words  phonetically. 
This  is  entirely  oral  and  should  be  kept  up  until  he  can 
tell  instantly  what  a  word  is  when  it  is  uttered  phonet- 
ically, and  until  he  exhibits  some  skill  in  uttering  words 
phonetically. 

2.  After  the  first  step  has  been  successfully  accom- 
plished, the  child  is  ready  for  the  second  stage,  which  is 
the  association  of  the  sound  with  its  written  or  printed 
symbol. 

As  a  preparation  for  this  step  the  words  of  the  vocab- 
ulary of  the  reading  book  should  be  grouped  according 
to  the  first  letter  of  the  sound  family,  which  is  usually 
the  first  vowel  of  the  word.  It  will  be  found  much 
better,  especially  in  the  first  year's  work,  to  consider 
words  of  only  one  syllable,  since  words  of  two  or  more 
syllables  present  difficulties  which  are  beyond  the  grasp 
of  a  beginner  in  phonics.  After  grouping  the  words  as 
suggested  above,  the  next  problem  is  to  select  the  con- 
sonants and  the  sound  families  that  will  be  most  helpful 
to  the  child  in  making  out  the  unknown  words  of  his 
reading  lessons.  The  teacher  should  go  through  each 
group  of  words  and  select  those  which  have  two  or  more 
words  belonging  to  the  same  sound-family.  Only  those 
words  should  be  considered  whose  endings  are  common 
enough  to  make  it  worth  while  to  teach  them.  For  in- 
stance, ay  is  a  common  ending  but  ith  is  not. 

Following  will  be  found  an  illustration  of  the  above 
plan  for  making  out  a  phonetic  course  of  study  as  ap- 
plied to  the  Free  and  Treadwell  Primer,  published  by 
Row,  Peterson,  Chicago. 

The  word  vocabulary  in  the  back  of  the  book  was  the 
basis  for  this  course.    A  column  was  arranged  for  each 


80  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


of  the  vowels,  as  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  The  words  of  the 
vocabulary  were  then  grouped  according  to  the  first 
vowel  of  the  sound-family.  All  words  of  more  than  one 
syllable  and  those  whose  endings  are  not  common  were 
eliminated.  The  column  under  the  vowel  a  was  as 
follows :  plant,  cat,  and,  make,  man,  had,  made,  ran,  am, 
can,  came,  hang,  rat,  gnaw,  gave,  that,  grass,  thank,  pan- 
cake, saw,  fast,  ate,  tail,  fat,  shake,  ant.  These  words 
were  regrouped  according  to  the  sound-family.  Where 
the  list  contained  only  one  word  of  a  family  this  word 
was  eliminated,  since  the  first  word  must  be  taught  as  a 
sight  word.  If  the  second  word  was  not  in  the  vocabu- 
lary the  family  would  not  be  of  immediate  help  to  the 
child. 

After  this  regrouping,  the  list  was  as  follows,  cat,  rat, 
that,  fat,  at;  man,  ran,  can,  pan;  make,  cake,  shake; 
gnaw,  saw.  Consequently,  the  families  which  were  to  be 
taught  under  this  a  column  were  the  at,  an,  ake,  and  aw 
families. 

As  previously  stated,  the  first  word  of  the  family 
series  should  be  taught  as  a  sight  word,  then  when  the 
second  word  appears  in  the  vocabulary,  the  family  should 
be  taught,  using  the  first  word  as  a  foundation.  For 
example,  the  word  cat  is  taught  as  a  sight  word.  The 
second  word,  rat  is  on  page  36.  Then  the  at  family 
should  be  taught  on  the  day  the  child  needs  to  know  the 
word  rat.  Rat  should  not  be  taught  as  a  sight  word  but 
the  child  should  be  trained  to  sound  it  out.  Hereafter, 
the  teacher  should  insist  that  he  sound  out  any  word 
belonging  to  the  at  family.  In  order  that  he  may  do  this 
it  is  necessary  for  her  to  look  ahead  and  see  that  he  has 
been  taught  the  consonant  sounds  which  he  will  need  in 
sounding  out  these  words.    The  complete  phonetic  course 


Phonics 


81 


of  study  is  shown  in  the  following  list.  The  italicized 
words  are  the  foundation  words  for  the  families  which 
are  to  be  taught.  The  family  is  given  in  parentheses  at 
the  time  when  it  should  be  taught.  The  words  which  are 
starred  are  phonetic  words  which  are  not  taught  as  sight 
words  but  which  are  sounded  out  by  the  child.  The  num- 
ber signifies  the  number  of  the  page  in  the  primer  on 
which  the  words  appear  as  a  new  word. 


1 

5 

11 

15 

the 

cut 

gingerbread 

met 

little 

then 

boy 

am 

red 

and 

12 

hen 

she 

there 

16 

2 

did 

old 

Jcan* 

found 

6 

woman 

run 

a 

thresh 

( Teach  e 

seed 

family 

21 

it 

7 

from  she) 

fox 

was 

grind 

*he* 

wheat 

man 

3 

8 

13 

23 

said 

make 

wanted 

(ut  family 

who 

bread 

so 

from  cut) 

will 

made 

>hut* 

plant 

9 

14 

4 

(Teach  eat 

-  (Teach  an 

26 

pig 

family  from 

family 

an* 

not 

wheat) 

from  man) 

sixpence 

I 

eat* 

1ran* 

(et-met) 

cat 

you 

away 

iget* 

dog 

shall 

from 

with 

Consonant 

sound    must    have    been    previously    taught. 

82 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


27 

34 

42 

52 

came 

rope 

rabbit 

seven 

to 

hang 

(y  from  my) 

children 

stile 

36 

iby* 

iw-vk) 

over 
won't 

28 

\JKJ 

(at  family 
from  cat) 
xrat* 

Hvhy* 

do 

because 

Jbig* 
1we* 
want 
heard 

bite 
home 

gnaw 

37 
1me* 
cheese 
(ot-not) 

43 

rolled 

to-night 

29 

vStick 

after 
44 

53 
stop 
for 

*beat* 

*got* 

squirrel 

54 

30 

gave 

cries 

(aw-gnaw) 
1saw* 

fire 

38 

48 

good-day 

burn 

began 

bee 

fast 

31 

Hhat* 

flew 

57 

water 

night 

cock 

quench 

39 

49 

63 

some 

goat 

laughed 

brook 

32 

40 

swim 

(o.v-fox) 

into 

50 

64 

ox* 

woods 

buzz 

on 

drink 

grass 

sting 

snout 

33 

41 

thank 

out 

butcher 

go 

good 

(ill  from 

would 

51 

are 

will) 

my 

(a&£-make) 

ate 

ikm* 

cry                    1pan-cake* 

sound  must  have  been  previously 

up 

1Consonant 

taught. 

Phonics 


83 


65 

72 

87 

95 

chicken 

Foxy  Loxy 

(ee-bee) 

leather 

*see* 

(ow-how) 

66 

75 

horns 

1cow* 

fell 

(en-hen) 

his 

Men* 

88 

96 

tail 

(owJ-snout) 

at* 

corn 

asky* 

out* 

farmer 

is 

again 

89 

falling 

Tuppens 

97 

76 

1plow* 

67 

three 

90 

x 

Henny  Penny 

Billy 

her 

98 
blacksmith 

how 
know 

gruff 

them 

of 

78 

91 

once 

choking 

99 

68 

were 

1spring* 

iron 

Turkey  Lurkey 

great 

please 

dwarfs 

(WJ-fefl) 

give 

Hell* 

79 

(up-up) 

101 

(ing-king) 

hillside 

iCUp* 

help 

aking* 

*fat* 

(ound-found) 

they 

bridge    » 

92 

*ground* 

told 

oak  tree 

69 

80 

^hake* 

102 

Ducky  Lucky 

troll 
under 

93 

shook 

eyes 

shoes 

103 

ears 

81 

spiders 

71 

went 

94 

first 

Goosey  Loosey 

trip 

shoe-maker 

web 

1Consonant  sound  must  have 

been  previously  taught. 

84  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


104 

106 

108 

111 

spinning" 

hum 

ant 

happy 

aswing* 

10? 

fro 

cricket 

110 

105 

butterfly 

bird 

Ifly* 

chirp 

1sing* 

The  work  for  each  succeeding  book  should  be  a  con- 
tinuation of  this  vocabulary.  If  the  teacher  should  de- 
sire to  do  less  work  in  phonics  she  may  eliminate  some 
of  the  less  necessary  families. 

After  a  few  months'  or  a  year's  study  in  phonics,  the 
process  may  be  shortened  by  teaching  the  sounds  of 
certain  combinations  of  letters  without  reference  to  the 
family  idea,  as  in  the  combination  ai.  If  this  is  taught 
the  child  can  make  out  almost  any  word  containing  this 
sound  as  mail,  paid,  rain,  and  wait.  Following  is  a 
suggestive  list  of  combinations  which  may  be  taught ;  ou, 
ea,  or,  on,  ar,  ie,  ir,  ur,  aw,  oa,  oi,  au,  ai. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  third  grade  the  teacher  may 
begin  to  train  the  child  to  use  the  dictionary,  teaching 
him  the  long  and  the  short  diacritical  marks,  and  then 
training  him  to  look  up  words,  containing  those  sounds. 
She  should  help  him  to  sound  out  these  words.  Later, 
she  may  extend  the  use  of  the  dictionary  by  teaching 
some  of  the  other  diacritical  marks  that  he  will  need  in 
looking  up  the  pronunciation  of  the  new  words  in  his 
reading  lesson.  A  child  has  very  little  use  for  the  dia- 
critical marks  except  as  he  uses  the  dictionary.  Follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  some  of  the  common  diacritical  marks 
which    may   be    taught    in   connection    with    dictionary 


1Consonant  sound  must  have  been  previously  taught. 


Phonics  85 


study :  a-arm ;  a-at ;  a-all ;  a-care ;  e-f ern ;  6-orb ;  u-rude ; 
u-full;  u-urn;  66-food;  oo-foot. 

Beacon  Plan.  Another  idea  for  grouping  phonetic 
words  is  advocated  in  the  Beacon  reader.  In  this  method 
the  long  and  the  short  vowel  sounds  are  linked  with  the 
initial  consonant.     For  example,  pa-t,  sa-p,  ra-n. 

The  short  vowels  are  taught  first,  since  the  short  sound 
is  a  part  of  many  more  words  than  is  the  long  sound. 
After  the  child  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  use  of  the 
short  sound,  he  is  taught  that  the  e  added  to  the  end  of 
the  word  makes  the  vowel  tell  its  name. 

The  subject-matter  for  the  phonetic  work  according  to 
this  plan  would  be  something  as  follows :  the  short  vowels, 
a  (long),  ai,  ay;  i  (long),  ie,  y;  o  (long),  oe,  oa,  ow; 
u  (long),  ue,  ew;  e  (long),  ea,  ee;  oy,  oi,  ow,  ou,  aw, 
au,  oo,  ea,  en,  ur,  ir,  ight,  ing,  oo  (wood),  ar,  er, 
eight,  etc. 

The  course  of  study  would  be  outlined  according  to 
the  directions  previously  given. 

After  the  child  has  been  taught  a  vowel  sound  he 
should  have  practice  in  blending  it  with  the  consonants. 
When  he  has  been  taught  short  i,  he  should  then  blend 
it  with  the  common  consonants,  as  bi,  ti,  fi,  si,  etc.  The 
more  common  consonants  should  be  taught  before  teach- 
ing a  vowel  in  order  that  he  may  not  be  hampered  in 
using  his  phonetic  knowledge  in  making  out  the  phonetic 
words  of  his  vocabulary. 

METHOD 

If  the  teacher  is  to  use  the  phonetic  element  success- 
fully in  teaching  the  child  to  read,  she  must  have  a 
thorough   knowledge  of   the  elementary   sounds   of  the 


86  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

English  language.  If  she  is  not  familiar  with  these  sounds, 
she  should  master  them  before  attempting  to  use  them 
in  the  classroom.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory  ways 
of  learning  these  sounds  is  to  repeat  slowly,  three  or 
four  times,  any  familiar  word  containing  the  given  sound. 
•An  effort  should  be  made  to  give  this  sound  distinctly. 
For  instance,  to  obtain  the  sound  of  b,  the  word  cab 
should  be  pronounced.  It  should  be  pronounced  again 
more  slowly  as  ca-b.  The  voice  should  be  allowed  to 
linger  on  the  last  sound,  which  is  the  sound  of  b.  It 
will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  spend  much  time  practic- 
ing on  the  following  list  of  words.  She  should  not  stop 
until  each  sound  can  be  given  correctly.  To  test  the 
correctness  of  a  sound,  she  should  pronounce  slowly 
other  words  containing  the  same  sound. 

To  obtain  the  sound  of  b  practice  on  cab  and  ball. 

To  obtain  the  sound  of  c  practice  on  cat. 

To  obtain  the  sound  of  f  practice  on  stiff  and  fan. 

To  obtain  the  sounds  of  the  following  consonants  prac- 
tice on  the  words  which  are  separated  from  the  letter 
by  a  dash:  <£-bed,  -day;  #-rag,  -get;  A-hot;  /-jump; 
&-king,  -look;  /-fall,  -love;  m-ram,  -man;  w-pan,  -not; 
/>-rap,  -pan ;  gw-queen ;  r-bar,  -rat ;  s-kiss,  -see ;  f-pet,  -tell ; 
zMove,  -van;  w-wet;  ^r-box;  y-yov,  £-fuzz,  -zone; 
jA-push,  -she;  c/t-child;  the  breath  sound  of  f/t-thin;  the 
voice  sound  of  th-then;  w/j-what. 

The  sounds  of  the  diphthongs  and  of  the  sound  fami- 
lies should  be  developed  and  practiced  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  used  for  the  consonant  sounds. 

The  purpose  of  the  phonic  lesson  is  to  develop  the 
instantaneous  association  of  the  sound  with  its  written 
or  printed  symbol,  and  to  train  the  child  to  independence 
through  the  use  of  his  phonetic  knowledge.     The  drill 


Phonics  87 


for  the  instantaneous  association  of  the  symbols  should 
be  very  thorough. 

As  previously  stated,  after  a  sound  family  has  been 
taught,  the  teacher  should  always  insist  that  the  pupil 
use  this  knowledge  in  making  out  new  words  containing 
this  sound.  If  he  has  been  taught  the  sound  of  m  and  of 
ay,  and  the  word  may  presents  itself  to  his  eye  for  the 
first  time,  she  should  have  him  sound  out  this  word  by 
having  him  cover  the  ay  which  leaves  m  exposed;  after 
he  has  given  this  sound,  he  should  be  lead  to  discover 
that  he  knows  ay.  He  should  then  make  these  sounds 
one  after  the  other,  which  will  give  him  the  word  may. 
This  seems  a  slow  process,  and  at  first  it  is  slow,  as  it 
would  be  much  quicker  and  easier  for  the  teacher  to  tell 
the  child  the  word,  but  by  taking  time  to  train  him  to  use 
these  forms  of  control  that  he  has  already  established, 
she  is  laying  the  foundation  for  independent  study,  which 
is  valuable  to  the  child. 

When  the  sound  of  the  same  combination  of  letters 
varies,  as  in  ow,  the  child  should  first  be  taught  the  sound 
that  occurs  the  more  often  in  his  reading  vocabulary. 
Later,  when  he  is  taught  the  other  sound  and  finds  an 
unknown  word  containing  this  combination  of  letters  he 
must  try  first  the  one  and  then  the  other,  selecting  the 
one  which  gives  a  word  that  makes  good  sense  in  the 
context. 

LESSON  PLAN 

A  preliminary  ear  and  voice  training  in  phonics  is  car- 
ried forward  from  the  first  day  of  school  in  the  form  of 
games  or  exercises.  This  work  is  entirely  oral,  and 
should  be  kept  up  until  the  child  can  clearly  detect  the 
phonetic  sounds  in  simple  words,  and  until  he  has  gained 


88  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

some  skill  in  uttering  words  phonetically.  By  allowing 
five  minutes  a  day  to  this  work  it  should  be  accomplished 
in  from  two  to  three  weeks. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 

I.  "Subject:  Phonics. 

II.  Topic:   Ear  and  voice  training  in  phonics. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  train  the  child  to  hear 
the  sounds  in  words.  (2)  To  train  him  to  utter  words 
phonetically. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  act  out  the  sentences. 
(2)  To  play  the  games.    (3)  To  act  as  teacher. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-  Matter  Procedure 

Lesson  1 
r-un  "Did  you  ever  hear  any  one  stutter?   Could 

j-ump  you  understand  him?     I  wonder  if  you  could 

h-op  understand  me  if   I   should   stutter?     If  you 

sk-ip  understand  me,  I  want  you  to  do  what  I  say. 

ch-air  I  want  some  one  to  r-un.     I  want  some  one 

sh-ut  to  j-ump.    I  want  some  one  to  h-op.    I  want 

f-ind  some  one  to  sk-ip.     Sit  on  my  ch-air.     Sh-ut 

the  door.  F-ind  a  book."  The  teacher  should 
continue  this  exercise  for  at  least  five  min- 
utes with  additional  directions,  allowing  a  child 
to  perform  each  direction  as  given. 

Lesson  2 

h-air  "I  wonder  if  you  can  understand  my  slow 

m-outh  way  of  talking  today?  Smooth  your  h-air.  Touch 

n-eck  your  n-eck.    Rub  your  thr-oat.    Lift  your  f-oot. 

thr-oat  Bend  your  kn-ee.    Sh-ow  your  t-eeth.    Touch 

f-oot  your  1-ips.     Stand  on  one  1-eg."     The  teacher 

kn-ee  should  continue  with  additional  directions  for 

sh-ow  at  least  five  minutes. 
1-ips 
1-eg 


Phonics  89 


Lesson  3 

b-ook  "I  shall  tell  you  what  I   saw  this  morning 

d-oll  as  I  came  to  school.     I  shall  speak  some  of 

h-at  the  words  slowly  and  I  want  you  to  tell  me 

b-ird  what  they  are.    I  saw  a  big  girl  with  a  b-ook. 

tr-ee  I    saw   a  little   girl   with   a   d-oll.     The   doll 

n-est  wore  a  h-at.     I   saw  a  pretty  b-ird.     It  was 

fl-y  in  a  tr-ee.     It  has  a  n-est.     I  saw  it  fl-y.     I 

s-ing  heard  it  s-ing."     The  teacher  should  continue 

with  additional  sentences. 

Lesson  4 

t-able  "I  am  going  to  play  that  I  am  just  learn- 

d-esk  ing  to  talk  and  all  I  can  say  is  the  first  sound 

w-all  of  a  word.     I  will  touch  some  object  in  the 

b-oy  room   and   give   the   first   sound   and   then    I 

g-irl  want  you  to  tell  me  what  it  is."    The  teacher 

ch-alk  touches  the  table  and  gives   the  sound  of   t. 

ch-air  The  children  say  "table."     She  then  touches 

the  desk,  wall,  a  boy,  a  girl,  and  a  chair  giv- 
ing the  initial  sound  of  each  in  turn. 

Lesson  5 

find  The   teacher   asks   the   children   to   tell   her 

mind  the  first  sound  of  the  words  she  pronounces, 

come  She  says  "find"  and  the  children  give  the  sound 

some  of  /.     She  then  pronounces  a  selected  list  of 

words. 

Lesson  6 

A  child  plays  teacher  in  the  game  of  touch- 
ing objects  given  in  the  fourth  lesson,  and 
gives  the  initial  sound. 

Lesson  7 

A  child  plays  teacher  and  gives  directions 
as  in  lesson  one. 


90  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Lesson  8 

A  child  plays  teacher  and  gives  directions 
as  in  lesson  two. 

Lesson  9 

A  child  tells  what  he  saw  as  he  came  to 
school  as  in  lesson  three. 

Lesson  10 

f-ind  "I   wonder   if  you  can  tell  me  what  these 

m-ind  words  are?"     The  teacher  speaks  the  follow- 

k-ind  ing  words  slowly;  "f-ind,  m-ind,  k-ind,  w-all, 

w-all  t-all,  s-ink,  r-ing,  sl-ing,  sh-eep."    She  should 

t-all  continue  with  additional  words. 

s-ing  "This  time  I   want  you  to   say  each  word 

r-ing  slowly  as  I  do  and  then  tell  me  what  it  is." 

sl-ing 

sh-eep 

These  lessons  should  be  continued  until  the  child  is 
able  to  give  a  word  instantly  when  he  hears  it  uttered 
phonetically  and  until  he  has  gained  some  skill  in  utter- 
ing words  phonetically.  He  is  then  ready  to  begin  the 
second  step  in  the  study  of  phonics,  that  is,  the  connect- 
ing of  the  sound  with  the  sight  symbol.  The  teacher 
should  select  some  word  which  has  been  thoroughly 
taught  as  a  sight  word  and  proceed  along  the  line  of  the 
following  plans: 

First  or  Second  Grade 

I.  Topic:  Sound  of  r  from  sight-word  run. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  To  train  the  child  to  give  the 
sound  r  automatically  whenever  he  sees  the  letter  r. 

III.  Child's  Motive:   (1)  To  repeat  the  word  phonet- 


Phonics 


91 


ically.     (2)   To  discover  the  first  sound  and  the  letter 
which  represents  it.      (3)    To  write  the  sound  on  the 
board.    (4)  To  find  the  sound  on  cards  or  in  the  book. 
IV.    Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 

1 

The  recall  of  previous 
experiences  with  the 
sounds  relating  to  the 
lesson. 


Procedure 

1 

Preparation:  The  teacher  begins 
with  a  brief  review  of  lessons  four, 
five,  and  six  which  were  given  on 
page  89. 


r-un 


4 

The     finding     of     the 
sound  r  in  other  words. 


Presentation:  She  then  holds  up 
the  card  with  run  printed  on  it. 
"Name  this  word  for  me.  Let  us 
say  it  slowly.  Now  I  will  cover 
up  the  last  part  of  the  word  and  let 
you  say  the  first  part.  Now  the  last 
part"  She  has  the  children  to  say 
the  word  slowly  two  or  three  times. 
"This  time  I  want  you  to  say  only 
the  first  part  while  I  cover  up  the 
last  part."  This  will  leave  the  r  ex- 
posed. "What  is  the  sound  of  this 
letter?  You  tell  me,  Mary,  John, 
Fenton."  For  drill  purposes  the  sin- 
gle letter  r  should  be  on  the  re- 
verse side  of  the  card.  "Let  us  see 
how  it  looks  when  it  is  written."  She 
places  the  letter  on  the  board  and 
has  several  children  to  copy  it  on  the 
board. 

4 
Application:    "Let  us  see  if  we 
can  find  some  other  words  with  this 


92  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

sound."  The  teacher  holds  up  cards 
on  which  are  known  sight-words  and 
allows  the  children  to  point  out  any 
word  containing  the  r  sound.  When 
a  word  is  found  it  should  be  pro- 
nounced slowly  to  see  if  the  sound 
is  the  same.  If  the  children  have  a 
book  the  application  may  be  made  to 
the  book.  The  lesson  should  close 
with  a  drill  on  this  and  any  sound 
which  has  been  previously  taught. 

First,  Second,  or  Third  Grade 

I.  Topic:   ay  family  from  the  sight- word  play. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  teach  the  child  a 
sound  family.  (2)  To  train  him  to  use  this  family  in 
making  out  new  words. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  discover  something  that 
is  to  make  him  independent  in  his  study.  (2)  To  repeat 
the  word  phonetically.  (3)  To  discover  the  sound  of 
the  last  part.  (4)  To  see  if  he  can  make  out  other  words 
that  belong  to  this  sound  family.  (5)  To  discover  a 
word  in  the  lesson  that  belongs  to  this  sound  family. 
(6)  To  learn  the  family  so  that  he  may  make  out  words 
for  himself. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 
Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1  1 

The  recall  of  experi-  Preparation:  "Who  helps  you. 
ences  connected  with  the  study?  How  would  you  like  to  learn 
study  of  the  reading  les-  to  study  by  yourself?  We  are  going 
son.  to   learn    something   today   that   will 

help  you.    Watch  and  see  what  it  is."' 


Phonics  93 


ay-play  Presentation:       "What     is     this 

word?"  The  teacher  holds  up  a  card 
with  play  printed  on  it.  "Let  me 
see  if  you  can  repeat  this  word  slow- 
ly. Let  us  see  what  the  sound  of 
the  first  part  is."  She  covers  up  ay 
and  has  pi  sounded.  She  then  covers 
up  pi  and  has  the  sound  of  ay  given. 
"What  is  this  (ay)  sound?  Did  you 
know  that  words  belong  to  families 
day  just   as   people    do?     What   part   of 

say  your   name   is   common   to    all   your 

may  family?     The  sound  of  the  last  part 

ray  of  the  word  is  its  family  name.  What 

lay  is  its   sound?     Then  to  what  family 

way  does  it  belong ?  Here  are  some  words 

that  belong  to  the  ay  family.  Let 
me  see  if  you  can  tell  what  they  are." 
The  words  of  this  list  must  be  the 
blending  of  previously  taught  con- 
sonant sounds  and  the  ay  sound.  The 
teacher  should  help  the  children  by 
covering  up  the  ay,  leaving  the  con- 
sonant exposed.  She  then  uncovers 
the  ay  and  has  it  sounded.  She  then 
leads  them  to  blend  the  consonant 
sound  with  the  sound  family. 


The     finding    of     the  Application:      "Open   your   book 

sound  in  the  new  lesson.      to  tomorrow's  lesson.    See  if  you  can 

find  a  word  belonging  to  the  ay  fam- 
ily." When  the  word  is  found  the 
teacher  should  help  the  children  to 
sound  it  out.  After  a  sound  family 
is  taught  she  should  always  insist 
that  during  a  study  period  they  sound 


94  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

out  any  word  containing  this  sound. 
"Let  us  see  if  we  can  learn  this 
sound  so  that  we  may  know  it  and 
be  able  to  sound  out  words  for  our- 
selves. Let  us  write  it  on  the  board." 
The  teacher  then  has  a  drill  on  this 
family  and  any  previously  taught 
sounds.  "What  have  we  learned  that 
will  help  us  study  by  ourselves?" 

REFERENCES 

Haliburton,  Phonics  in  Reading 

Spaulding  and  Bryce,  Learning  to  Read 

Coe  and  Christie,  The  Story  Hour  Manual 

School  Methods  Co.,  New  Primary  Methods 

Beacon,  Manual  to  Readers 

Klapper,  Teaching  Children  to  Read 

Briggs  and  Coffman,  Reading  in  the   Public  Schools 

Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  STUDY  LESSON 

(reading — continued) 

A  supervised  study  lesson  in  reading  should  consist  of 
(1)  the  discovery  of  a  problem,  (2)  the  analysis  of  the 
difficulties,  and  (3)  the  establishing  of  correct  study 
habits. 

1.  Problem.  The  assignment  or  discovery  of  a 
problem  is  the  first  step.  The  laws  of  apperception,  in- 
terest, and  aim  are  essential  parts  of  this  step.  How 
shall  the  immediate  interest  of  the  child  be  secured  and 
the  problem  be  made  vital  to  him  ?  Just  what  experiences 
should  the  teacher  help  him  recall  in  order  that  he  may 
have  a  proper  apperceptive  basis?  To  answer  these 
questions  the  teacher  must  understand  the  child  and  must 
be  familiar  with  his  daily  life. 

A  question,  a  picture,  or  an  object  will  often  prove 
very  effective  in  securing  his  interest  and  in  providing 
the  proper  apperceptive  basis.  If  the  lesson  is  about  a 
mountain  and  the  child  has  never  seen  one,  the  teacher 
will  need  to  recall  his  experiences  with  hills.  If  this,  too, 
is  not  his  experience,  she  should  help  him  to  an  under- 
standing of  a  mountain  by  using  pictures,  or  sand-table, 
or  by  calling  his  attention  to  the  clouds  which  often  look 
like  miniature  mountains. 

Variety  in  the  choice  of  the  problem  will  do  much 
toward  keeping  the  child's  interest  and  in  making  the 

95 


96  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

problem  seem  worth  while.  It  should  be  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  study  of  the  lesson  is  necessary  before  it  can  be 
finally  solved.  A  problem  may  be  assigned  to  the  entire 
class  or  different  problems  may  be  assigned  to  different 
groups. 

Following  are  some  suggestions  for  motives  or  prob- 
lems for  the  study  of  a  reading  lesson : 

(a)  To  be  able  to  tell  certain  things  about  the  lesson, 
(b)  To  be  able  to  tell  the  story  of  the  lesson,  (c)  To 
be  able  to  read  the  lesson  to  the  pupils  of  another  class 
so  that  they  will  enjoy  it.  (d)  To  be  able  to  find  and 
read  a  paragraph  or  sentence  which  the  teacher  or  a 
classmate  may  illustrate,  (e)  To  be  able  to  dramatize 
a  sentence  or  a  paragraph  from  the  lesson.  This  sen- 
tence or  paragraph  must  be  found  and  read  by  the  other 
members,  (f)  To  be  able  to  take  the  part  of  a  char- 
acter in  the  dramatization  of  the  lesson,  (g)  To  be  able 
to  find  and  read  the  sentence  or  paragraph  which  will 
answer  a  question  given  by  the  teacher  or  a  member  of 
the  class,  (h)  To  be  able  to  read  the  sentence  or  para- 
graph which  he  likes  best,  (i)  To  be  able  to  describe 
something  in  the  lesson,  (j)  To  be  able  to  divide  the 
lesson  into  topics.  Certain  groups  are  to  read  the  section 
which  is  covered  by  a  certain  topic. 

2.  Difficulties.  The  difficulties- of  the  reading  les- 
son should  consist  of  new  sight  words,  new  phonetic 
words,  difficult  sight  words  previously  presented,  pho- 
netic words  previously  presented,  and  phrases  and  sen- 
tences the  interpretation  of  which  may  prove  difficult. 
The  new  sight  words  and  phrases  should  be  presented  in 
connection  with  the  context  or  in  sentences  which  may 
be  placed  on  the  board.  The  difficult  sight  words  should 
be  reviewed  in  an  interesting  way.    In  the  phonetic  work, 


The  Study  Lesson  97 

the  child  should  either  be  taught  the  sounds  necessary  to 
make  out  the  words  for  himself  or  he  should  be  helped  in 
discovering  that  he  already  has  this  knowledge.  This 
work  will  take  patience.  It  would  be  easier  to  tell  him 
what  the  word  is  than  to  train  him  to  study  it  out  by  the 
use  of  sounds,  but  patience  will  pay  as  he  rapidly  gains 
habits  of  independence  in  overcoming  difficulties. 

3.  Habits  of  Study.  The  child  should  be  trained 
to  recall  the  assigned  problem  at  the  beginning  of  the 
study  period  and  to  keep  it  constantly  in  mind  as  he 
studies.  He  should  be  made  to  realize  that  the  study  is 
finished  only  when  the  problem  is  solved.  He  should  be 
trained  to  attack  any  difficulty  which  he  meets  with  in  his 
study.  If  it  is  a  difficult  word,  he  should  strive  to  make 
out  its  pronunciation  by  the  use  of  his  phonetic  knowl- 
edge. If  this  is  not  possible,  he  should  then  try  to  dis- 
cover its  pronunciation  from  the  context.  If  it  is  a 
difficult  phrase  he  should  try  to  discover  its  meaning  from 
the  context.  These  also  are  slow  processes  but  they  are 
infinitely  worth  while  inasmuch  as  they  are  necessary  to 
independence  in  study. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 

First  Grade 

I.  Topic:  "The  Fox  and  the  Little  Red  Hen."  Part 
I.  A  lesson  unit  to  be  given  on  same  day  but  at  different 
period. 

II.  Teacher's.  Motive:  (1)  To  awaken  the  child's  in- 
terest in  the  new  lesson.  (2)  To  teach  him  that  study 
means  the  solving  of  a  problem.  (3)  To  make  study 
interesting  to  him  by  anticipating  and  overcoming  such 
difficulties  as  would  retard  study. 


98  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

III.  Child's  Motive:  ( 1 )  To  be  ready  to  read  certain 
sections  of  the  story.  (2)  To  be  able  to  find  and  to  read 
any  sentence  which  the  teacher  may  choose  to  illustrate. 
(3)  To  learn  words,  phrases,  and  sounds  so  that  he  may 
study  his  lesson  without  help.  (4)  To  play  the  game 
used  in  the  drill  lesson.  (5)  To  find  the  phonetic  words 
in  the  new  lesson. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

THE  FOX  AND  THE  LITTLE  RED  HEN 

"A  little  red  hen  lived 
in  a  little  house  in  the  woods. 

She  had  a  little  bedroom, 
a  little  parlor,  and  a  little  kitchen. 

There  was  a  little  cupboard 
in  the  kitchen. 

"Over  the  hill  a  sly  fox  lived 

in  a  den  with  his  mother. 
He  wished  to  catch  the  little  red  hen 

and  eat  her. 
But  she  was  a  wise  little  hen. 
She  kept  her  eyes  open 

and  her  door  shut. 

"One  day  the  fox  got  a  big  bag. 
'Mother,  put  the  pot  on/  he  said. 
'I  will  get  that  red  hen  to-day 

and  have  her  for  dinner.' 
And  he  went  over  the  hill 

to  the  little  red  hen's  house. 
Just  then  she  came  out 


The  Study  Lesson 


99 


to  get  some  wood  for  her  fire. 
She  did  not  shut  the  door  this  time. 
The  sly  fox  crept  into  the  house 

and  hid  behind  the  cupboard." 

— The  Child's  World  First  Reader 


Subject-Matter 


1 

The  recall  of  experi- 
ences with  the  enemies 
of   chickens 


Procedure 

Period  I.  This  will  usually  come 
just  at  the  close  of  the  reading  reci- 
tation. 

1 

Preparation:  "Did  you  ever  visit 
in  the  country?  Did  the  people  keep 
chickens  ?  Did  you  ever  hear  of  any- 
thing trying  to  catch  them?  How 
did  the  fox  or  opossum  manage  to 
catch  them?" 


a.  Problem :  To  be 
able  to  find  and  to  read 
any  sentence  which  the 
teacher  may  illustrate. 


Presentation:  "Our  new  lesson 
tells  about  how  the  fox  tried  to 
catch  a  little  red  hen.  I  want  you 
to  be  ready  to  read  the  section  that 
describes  the  home  of  the  little  red 
hen,  the  section  that  tells  why  the 
fox  had  not  been  able  to  catch  her, 
and  the  section  which  tells  the  plan 
he  finally  used."  This  will  be  pages 
99  and  100. 

"Let  me  tell  you  what  I  am  going 
to  do  tomorrow.  I  am  going  to  draw 
some  pictures  to  illustrate  different 
sentences  in  the  lesson,  and  I  will 
see  if  you  can  find  and  read  the  sen- 
tence. After  you  have  read  it  to 
us  we  will  decide  if  you  are  correct. 


100 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


b.  The  development 
and  the  drill  on  the  new 
sight  words,  difficult 
sight  words,  and  phrases. 

(1)     New  Words: 
I  eat  dinner. 


"I  went  to  the  woods 
last  summer." 


"We    call    it    a    bed- 
room.*' 


(2)  Review  of  diffi- 
cult sight  words:  there, 
lived,   wished,   kept. 

(3)  Interpretation  of 
difficult  phrase: 

sly  fox 


What   shall  you  have  to   do   if  you 
are  able  to  take  part  in  the  lesson?" 
He  will  have  to  study  the  entire  les- 
son. 
Period  II. 

"What  do  you  do  when  you  go 
home?"  The  teacher  should  insist 
that  each  child  answer  in  a  complete 
statement.  "I  will  write  what  you 
have  said  on  the  board."  She  should 
call  the  child's  attention  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sentence  with  a  capi- 
tal and  to  the  placing  of  the  period 
at  the  close. 

"Who  would  like  to  read  this  sen- 
tence? Find  where  it  says  dinner. 
Find  the  card  with  dinner  on  it." 

"Did  you  ever  go  to  the  woods  on 
a  picnic  or  to  gather  nuts?  When 
did  you  go?  I  will  write  what  you 
said  on  the  board."  She  places  the 
sentence  on  the  board,  and  has  it 
read,  then  the  word  woods  is  pointed 
out  and  found  on  the  card. 

"What  do  you  call  the  room  in 
which  you  sleep?"  The  sentence  is 
placed  on  the  board  and  read  by 
some  one.  The  word  bedroom  is 
pointed  out  and  found  on  the  card. 
A  drill  lesson  is  given  on  these 
words.  (See  Chapter  VI,  pages  75 
to  76.) 

At  another  period  a  drill  lesson  is 
given  on  the  difficult  sight  words. 

"Did  you  ever  hear  any  one  say 
that  some  one  was  sly?  What  did 
he  mean?  In  our  new  lesson  the 
fox  is  called  a  sly  fox.  What  does 
that  mean?     I  will  write  'He  was  a 


The  Study  Lesson 


101 


(4)      a.      Sounds : 
y  from  sky. 

Review  sounds : 
en,  ill,  s,  1,   d,  h,  w,  th 
(voice). 

b.  New  phonetic  words 
den,  sly. 

Review  phonetic  words : 
hiil,  will, 
hen,  then. 


The  study  of  the  les- 
son as  a  whole- 


sly  fox.' "   She  has  this  sentence  read 
and  the  phrase  pointed  out. 

The  new  sound  family  3;  is  devel- 
oped as  in  the  illustrative  lesson  on 
the  introduction  of  a  sound  family, 
Chapter  VII,  pages  92  to  94. 

The  review  work  in  phdnfcsr  is  con- 
ducted as  in  the  illustrative^  drslll  les- 
son.    (Chapter  VI,  pages  75  to  76.) 

The  teacher  then  has  the  children 
turn  to  the  new  lesson,  and  she 
allows  them  to  find  the  phonetic 
words  belonging  to  the  families  used 
in  the  drills. 

In  the  supervised  study  of  the  les- 
son the  teacher  should  insist  that  the 
children  sound  out  every  phonetic 
word  which  they  do  not  know.  For 
example,  she  asks  them  before  they 
begin  to  study,  "When  you  find  a 
word  that  you  do  not  know,  what  are 
you  going  to  do?  Yes,  see  if  you 
know  the  family  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  if  you  do,  you  will  sound  out 
the  word." 

4 

Application:  At  the  beginning 
of  the  study  period  the  teacher 
should  help  the  children  to  recall  the 
problem  which  they  are  to  solve.  At 
th'e  close  of  the  period, .  she  should 
again  have  the  problem  stated  and 
allow  each  child  to  decide  for  him- 
self if  he  has  solved  it.  When  a 
child  comes  to  a  difficult  word  or 
phrase  she  should  encourage  him  to 
discover  its  pronunciation  or  mean- 
ing by  using  his  phonetic  knowledge 
or  from  its  use  in  the  context. 


102  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Second  or  Third  Grade 

I.  Topic :    The  Wonder  Flower,  Part  I. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:     (1)    To  awaken  the   child's 
interest  in  the  new  lesson.     (2)  To  teach  him  that  study 
means  -tjie  .solving  of  a  problem.     (3)   To  make  study 
interesting'  by  anticipating  and  overcoming  such  difficul- 
ties as  would  rfetard  the  study. 

lit  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  be  able  to  find  and  to 
read  any  paragraph  which  the  teacher  chooses  to  illus- 
trate. (2)  To  learn  words,  phrases,  and  sounds  so  that 
he  may  study  his  lesson  without  help.  (3)  To  play  the 
games  used  in  the  drill  lesson.  (4)  To  find  the  phonetic 
words  in  the  new  lesson. 

IV.     Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

The  Wonder  Flower,  Part  I 

"There  was  once  a  little  shepherd  boy,  named  Carl, 
who  herded  the  sheep  of  a  rich  man. 

"Carl  and  his  mother  lived  in  a  tiny  house  with  a  tiny 
garden  around  it.  The  house  and  garden,  with  a  white 
goat,  were  all  they  had  in  the  world. 

"A  deep  river  ran  near  Carl's  home.  Not  far  away 
were  the  great  forests  and  the  high  mountains. 

"Carl  loved  the  shining  river,  the  green  forests,  and 
the  high  mountains.  He  loved  the  singing  birds  and  the 
gay  butterflies.  But  he  loved  still  more  the  beautiful 
flowers  that  grew  by  the  side  of  the  river,  in  the  green 
forest,  and  on  the  mountain. 

"Every  morning  Carl  guided  his  sheep  down  to  the 
river,  and  herded  them  there  all  day.  When  night  came, 
he  guided  them  back  to  the  fold.  Then  he  hurried  to  his 
home  under  the  fir  trees  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 


The  Study  Lesson 


103 


"But  you  must  not  think  that  Carl  played  even  then. 
There  was  the  wood  to  cut,  the  garden  to  work,  and  the 
white  goat  to  milk.  Carl's  mother  was  not  very  strong, 
and  she  had  to  spin  all  day  long  and,  sometimes,  until 
late  in  the  night. 

"Carl  loved  her  too  well  to  let  her  do  the  work  that  he 
could  do.  And  though  they  were  very  poor,  Carl  and  his 
mother  were  quite  happy  in  their  little  home  at  the  foot 
of  the  great  mountain." 

— Haliburton's  Second  Reader 


Subject-Matter 

1 

The  recall  of  any  ex- 
perience connected  with 
the  name  Carl. 


Procedure 

1 

Preparation:  "Do  you  know  any 
one  named  Carl?  Where  does  he 
live?  How  does  he  help  his  moth- 
er?" 


The  Wonder  Flower 


a.  Problem:  To  find 
and  to  read  any  para- 
graph illustrated  by  the 
teacher. 


Presentation:  "Our  new  lesson 
tells  about  a  boy  named  Carl.  I  won- 
der if  he  is  anything  like  your  friend 
Carl?  We  will  read  the  first  part  of 
the  story.  Let  me  tell  you  what  I 
am  going  to  do  tomorrow.  I  am 
going  to  draw  some  pictures  to  illus- 
trate the  different  paragraphs  in  the 
lesson  and  I  want  you  to  be  able  to 
read  the  paragraph  you  think  I  am 
illustrating.  Then  we  will  decide  if 
you  are  right.  What  shall  you  have 
to  do  if  you  are  able  to  take  part 
in  the  lesson? 

"What  must  you  know  before  you 
can  read  your  lesson?     Yes,  the  new 


104 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


b.    Difficulties : 
(1)  New  words: 
shepherd 
Carl 
butterfly 


(2) 


Phrase : 
the  shining 
river 


(3)    Phonetic    words 

(review) 
(a)  ich-rich 

oat-goat 

eep-deep 

ear-near 

ing-shining 
-singing 

ong-strong 
-long 


words.  Let  us  see  how  quickly  we 
can  learn  them. 

"What  do  we  call  a  man  who 
cares  for  sheep?  Here  is  the  word 
shepherd  on  the  board,  and  it  is  in 
your  new  lesson  also. 

"What  is  the  boy's  name  in  our 
lesson?  Here  is  Carl  written  on  the 
board.  What  was  this  first  word? 
(shepherd.)  What  is  the  second? 
(Carl.) 

"How  many  have  seen  butterflies? 
We  will  read  of  butterflies  in  to- 
morrow's lesson.  Here  is  the  word 
butterfly  on  the  board." 

The  teacher  then  has  a  word  drill 
on  all  the  words  presented-  (See 
Chapter  VI,  pages  75  to  76.) 

"How  many  of  you  have  seen  a 
river?  How  did  it  look?  How  did 
it  look  when  the  sun  shone  on  it? 
In  tomorrow's  lesson  it  says  that 
C5rl  loved  the  shining  river.  What 
do  you  suppose  it  means  by  the  shin- 
ing river?  Let  me  write,  'Carl  loved 
the  shining  river.'  "  She  has  the  sen- 
tence read  and  the  phrase  pointed 
out. 

The  teacher  has  a  short  card  drill 
on  the  sound  families  found  in  the 
lesson.  She  then  has  the  children 
turn  to  the  lesson  and  allows  them 
to  find  the  words  belonging  to  these 
families.  When  a  word  is  found,  it 
is  placed  on  the  board  and  sounded 
out.  This  part  of  the  lesson  should 
close  with  the  question,  "When  you 
find  a  word  in  your  lesson  which 
you  do  not  know,  what  are  you  go- 


The  Study  Lesson  105 

ing  to  do?  Yes,  see  if  you  know 
the  family  to  which  it  belongs,  and 
if  you  do,  you  can  sound  out  the 
word." 


The  study  of  the  les-  Application:   At  the  beginning  of 

son.  the  study  period  the  teacher  should 

have  the  children  recall  the  problem. 
At  the  close  she  should  again  have 
the  problem  stated  and  allow  each 
child  to  decide  for  himself  if  he  has 
solved  it. 

If  they  find  a  word  or  phrase 
which  they  do  not  know  she  should 
help  them  to  discover  its  pronuncia- 
tion or  meaning  by  the  use  of  their 
phonetic  knowledge  or  from  the  con- 
text. 

REFERENCES 

Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 

Earhart,  Teaching  Children  to  Study 

McMurry,  How  to  Study 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Strayer  and   Norsworthy,   How   to  Teach 

Jenkins,  'Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  RECITATION 

(reading — continued) 

AIM 

In  the  reading  recitation  the  aim  should  be  to  develop 
the  child's  initiative,  his  power  for  clear,  systematic 
thinking,  his  power  of  expression,  the  ability  to  gather 
thought  from  the  printed  page,  the  ability  to  think  and 
to  talk  while  standing,  and  skill  in  the  judging  of  values. 

The  child  should  be  trained  to  recognize  whether  or 
not  he  has  sufficiently  studied  his  lesson.  He  should  learn 
that  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  is  not  a  matter  of 
reading  it  over  a  certain  number  of  times,  but  that  of 
studying  until  the  problem  in  the  assignment  has  been 
solved.  He  should  be  trained  to  report  any  unsolved 
difficulty  in  class,  for  example,  a  difficult  word,  a  passage 
whose  meaning  is  obscure,  or  the  proper  way  to  express 
a  certain  passage. 

The  real  test  of  the  reading  is  not  how  well  the  child 
is  able  to  read  in  the  schoolroom  but  the  use  he  makes  of 
this  ability  in  practical  life.  He  should  be  encouraged  to 
read  his  lesson  or  to  tell  the  story  after  careful  prepara- 
tion to  his  small  brothers,  sisters,  mother,  father,  grand- 
parents, or  playmates. 

I.     SILENT   READING 

Aim.  The  purpose  of  the  silent  reading  recitation 
is  to  train  the  child  to  gather  the  thought  of  the  printed 

106 


The  Recitation  107 


page  accurately  and  rapidly.  Inasmuch  as  silent  read- 
ing is  of  such  importance  the  teacher  should  plan  to  give 
the  child  definite  training  in  it.  In  other  words,  it  should 
be  a  definite  part  of  his  training  from  the  day  he  enters 
school  until  he  finishes. 

Method.  The  first  lessons  will  usually  take  the 
form  of  action  sentences  which  the  child  reads  silently 
and  then  acts  out.  For  instance,  he  reads  silently  the 
sentence,  "Run  to  a  boy,"  and  then  performs  the  act 
without  speaking  a  word.  Later  he  can  read  a  sentence 
or  paragraph  silently  and  then  illustrate  it  by  a  crude 
drawing,  free  hand  paper  cutting,  or  by  clay  modeling. 
The  sentence,  "There  was  a  small  cupboard  in  the 
kitchen,'5  may  be  illustrated  by  drawing  a  picture  of  a 
cupboard,  by  cutting  a  cupboard  from  paper,  or  by 
modeling  one  from  clay.  Any  one  of  these  may  be  done 
without  oral  reading. 

If  a  question  appears  in  the  reading  lesson,  the  child 
may  be  allowed  to  read  the  question  silently  and  then 
answer  it.  .  "Can  you  read?"  is  read  silently  and  he 
answers,  "Yes,  I  can  read." 

As  the  child  gains  power  in  reading,  the  entire  recita- 
tion period  may  be  given  over  to  a  silent  reading  recita- 
tion in  which  the  teacher  asks  questions  about  a  sen- 
tence or  a  paragraph  and  he  reads  the  sentence  or  para- 
graph silently  and  then  answers  the  question  in  his  own 
words.  Later  he  may  be  trained  to  ask  questions  about 
the  lesson,  the  answers  to  be  given  by  another  child. 

A  group  of  children  may  read  certain  sections  of  the 
lesson  silently  and  then  give  a  pantomime  of  the  scene. 
In  the  story  of  "The  Fox  and  the  Little  Red  Hen"  the 
section  which  gives  the  plan  of  the  fox  may  be  acted 
out.     The  entire  lesson  may  be  read  silently  and  then 


108  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


the  book  laid  aside  and  the  story  dramatized.    The  book 
is  to  be  referred  to  only  in  event  of  a  dispute. 

Rate  in  Reading.  It  has  been  previously  shown  that 
the  rapid  reader  is  the  more  intelligent  reader;  that  he 
gains  more  intensive  and  more  vivid  impressions  than 
does  the  slow  reader;  that  he  gains  these  impressions 
more  quickly;  that  he  retains  them  longer.  Rapidity  in 
the  gathering  of  thought  from  the  printed  page  does  not 
come  through  oral  reading  but  through  persistent,  well- 
directed  practice  in  silent  reading. 

The  teacher  should  plan  definitely  how  she  is  to  train 
the  child  to  rapidity  in  silent  reading.  Inasmuch  as  this 
rapidity  is  not  possible  without  rapid  word  recognition, 
this  is  the  first  step  in  the  process.  It  should  begin  by 
training  the  child  to  recognize  words  after  only  an  in- 
stant's exposure.  This  should  be  gradually  extended  to 
groups  of  words,  as  "a  little  boy,"  then  to  short  sen- 
tences, as  "I  see  a  little  boy."  These  may  be  printed  on 
strips  of  tag-board  or  heavy  paper.  In  this  work  it  is 
best  to  use  only  words  with  which  the  child  is  thoroughly 
familiar,  since  the  end  is  not  word  recognition,  but  rapid 
word  recognition. 

In  the  second  or  third  grade  each  of  the  children  may 
be  given  a  new  book  containing  easy  reading.  A  section 
which  is  to  be  read  in  a  certain  length  of  time  is  desig- 
nated. When  the  signal  is  given  all  are  to  close  their 
books.  The  aim  is  to  see  who  can  best  give  the  thought 
of  what  was  read.  This  should  be  continued  until  each 
child  has  had  the  opportunity  to  give  the  thought  of  a 
section. 

The  habit  of  rapidity  in  reading  may  be  greatly  re- 
tarded if  the  subject-matter  of  the  regular  book  is  too 
difficult  as  to  words  or  thought,  since  the  child  is  more 


The  Recitation  109 


than  likely  to  form  the  habit  of  reading  slowly.  Any- 
thing which  tends  to  make  him  a  slow  reader  is  to  be 
discouraged. 

II.    ORAL  READING 

Aim.  The  purpose  of  oral  reading  is  not  to  dis- 
cover whether  the  pupil  can  recognize  the  words  of  the 
lesson,  but  is  to  help  him  to  understand  and  to  interpret 
the  meaning  and  the  spirit  of  the  selection.  A  minor 
purpose  is  to  train  him  to  express  the  thought  in  a  man- 
ner which  will  be  pleasing  to  his  audience. 

Method.  The  teacher  should  always  be  sure  that 
the  child  has  had  the  experience  necessary  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  selection,  and  that  he  has  the  proper  stage 
setting;  in  other  words,  he  must  be  led  to  form  a  vivid 
mental  picture  of  the  characters  and  of  the  events  in  the 
story.  These  vivid  mental  pictures  are  a  necessary  basis 
for  good  oral  reading,  inasmuch  as  expression  is  a 
natural  outcome  of  a  vivid  impression.  When  the  child 
has  gained  the  ability  to  form  these  pictures  through  his 
silent  reading,  the  droning  of  words  will  disappear  and 
his  oral  reading  will  be  more  realistic. 

One  of  the  most  effective  ways  to  guide  the  child  in 
the  interpretation  of  a  selection  is  by  a  well  directed 
question  which  will  cause  an  important  point  to  stand 
out  clearly.  For  example,  "Where  did  the  little  red  hen 
live?"  Questions  will  also  be  very  effective  in  leading 
him  to  find  the  heart  or  the  key  sentence  of  a  selection. 
For  instance:  "Why  was  such  a  title  selected  for  this 
story?" 

The  child  should  be  trained  to  read  by  sections,  for 
instance,  "Read  the  part  that  tells  what  Forest  Rover's 


110  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


mother  gave  him  on  his  birthday."  At  first  this  will  be 
slow  work,  but  if  the  teacher  perseveres  she  will  find 
that  he  will  develop  considerable  skill.  Not  only  will 
reading  conducted  in  this  way  help  him  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  selection,  but  it  will  also  develop  his  power 
for  clear  thinking. 

As  previously  stated,  dramatization  and  dialogue  read- 
ing help  to  make  the  oral  reading  more  realistic  to  the 
child.  Selections  in  which  the  conversational  element 
predominates  should  usually  be  dramatized  or  read  as  a 
dialogue.  No  equipment  will  be  needed,  as  the  child  is 
very  imaginative  and  enjoys  imagining  the  stage  scenery 
of  the  story.  The  stronger  readers  should  be  selected  for 
the  difficult  parts,  allowing  the  slower  ones  to  read  the 
easier  parts. 

In  his  interest  to  express  the  thought  gathered  through 
silent  reading,  the  child  will  often  omit  words  and  sub- 
stitute others  of  similar  meaning.  For  example,  the  use 
of  the  word  strong  for  stout.  This  is  perfectly  natural 
and  no  attention  should  be  given  to  it,  as  the  purpose  of 
the  lesson  is  not  exact  word  calling,  but  the  interpretation 
and  the  expression  of  the  thought.  To  require  him  always 
to  give  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  words  of  the  selec- 
tion will  often  result  in  his  attention  being  directed  to 
the  words,  and  he  will  lose  sight  of  the  thought  behind 
the  words.  An  exception  to  this  rule  should  be  made  in 
the  case  of  the  child  who  changes  the  wording  through 
carelessness. 

For  this  same  reason,  class  criticism  is  likely  to  result 
in  losing  sight  of  the  real  purpose  of  the  lesson,  and  the 
recitation  is  given  over  to  watching  for  possible  mistakes. 
In  other  words,  it  is  not  desirable  for  the  child  to  act  as 
a  critic  since  this  is  likely  to  spoil  the  whole  spirit  and 


The  Recitation  111 


purpose  of  the  recitation.  The  teacher  should  not  inter- 
rupt a  child  with  a  criticism  while  he  is  reading  unless 
the  error  is  a  very  glaring  one. 

When  a  child  is  reading  orally  and  comes  to  a  word 
which  he  does  not  know,  the  teacher  should  pronounce  it 
for  him  instantly,  otherwise  the  thread  of  thought  is  lost. 
A  note  may  be  made  of  the  word  and  his  attention  called 
to  it  when  he  has  finished. 

If  oral  reading  is  to  be  done  in  a  pleasing  manner  there 
are  certain  desirable  recitation  habits  which  should  be 
formed. 

( 1 )  The  child  should  face  the  class  when  he  is  reading. 
This  will  provide  him  with  an  audience  which  should 
inspire  him  to  more  realistic  reading.  (2)  He  should 
stand  erect,  and  hold  his  book  with  both  hands.  The 
book  is  held  by  the  lower  edge.  (3)  He  should  be  taught 
the  proper  way  for  turning  the  page.  When  going  for- 
ward, turn  from  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  and  when 
going  backward,  turn  from  the  lower  left-hand  corner. 
(4)  A  beginning  child  often  has  difficulty  in  keeping  the 
place  during  the  oral  reading  recitation.  He  may  be  per- 
mitted to  use  a  small  card  which  he  places  either  above 
or  below  the  part  to  be  read.  He  should  be  encouraged  to 
discontinue  this  asj  quickly  as  possible.  (5)  A  first-grade 
child  should  be  required  to  read  a  sentence  silently  before 
he  reads  it  orally.  He  should  then  look  at  the  class  and 
tell  what  he  read.  This  should  be  kept  up  until  he  has 
become  somewhat  skillful  in  reading.  Whenever  a 
second-  or  third-grade  child  stumbles  in  his  oral  reading 
he  should  be  stopped  and  required  to  read  the  part 
silently,  then  orally.  (6)  Any  lip  movement  in  silent 
reading  should  be  discouraged  inasmuch  as  this  results 
in  slow  reading.     (7)  The  child  should  not  be  allowed  to 


112  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

form  the  habit  of  pointing  at  words  in  silent  or  oral 
reading,  as  this,  too,  will  tend  to  result  in  slow  reading. 

LESSON  PLANS 

Contents.  If  the  lesson  has  been  properly  assigned 
the  teacher  will  have  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson.  All  that  she  should  have 
to  do  in  planning  the  recitation  should  be  to  look  over  the 
lesson  and  decide  the  form  of  recitation  to  which  it  is 
best  adapted,  or  in  what  way  she  can  best  handle  the 
recitation  in  order  that  the  child  may  reap  the  greatest 
benefit  from  it. 

Teacher's  Motive.  In  planning  for  the  recitation  it 
is  essential  that  the  teacher  decide  just  what  she  wants  the 
child  to  gain  from  this  recitation.  Is  it  best  to  make  it 
a  habit-forming  lesson,  or  one  that  will  develop  initiative 
and  individuality?  Shall  she  plan  it  in  such  a  way  as 
to  develop  his  power  for  systematic  thinking  or  to  develop 
his  power  of  expression  ?  Shall  it  be  a  lesson  in  gather- 
ing thought  from  the  printed  page  or  in  developing  his 
ability  to  think  and  talk  while  standing?  Or  shall  it  be 
a  lesson  to  increase  his  rate  in  reading?  These  motives 
or  purposes  overlap  more  or  less,  and  any  recitation, 
whatever  its  direct  purpose,  will  likely  forward  more 
than  one  of  these  motives. 

Child's  Motive.  In  planning  for  the  recitation  it  is 
also  essential  for  the  teacher  to  decide  how  she  can 
arouse  the  child's  active  interest  so  that  he  may  get  out 
of  the  recitation  just  what  she  desires.  Following  is  a 
list  of  suggestions  for  possible  motives  for  the  child: 

1.  Oral  Reading,  (a)  To  be  able  to  read  so  that 
his  teacher  and  classmates  shall  form  vivid  mental  pic- 


The  Recitation  113 


tures  of  the  thing  read,  (b)  To  read  just  as  he  thinks 
the  character  talked,  (c)  To  learn  to  read  so  well  that 
he  may  read  the  story  to  some  one.  (d)  To  be  able  to 
find  and  read  the  part  which  answers  a  question  given 
by  the  teacher  or  a  classmate,  (e)  To  read  certain  sec- 
tions, or  certain  things  that  happened  in  the  story,  (f) 
To  read  the  section  illustrated  by  the  teacher,  (g)  To 
read  the  section  which  has  just  been  dramatized,  (h) 
To  outline  the  lesson,  then  name  and  read  a  section, 
(i)  To  be  able  to  name  words,  phrases,  or  sentences 
which  are  exposed  for  an  instant  only. 

2.  Silent  Reading,  (a)  To  be  able  to  dramatize  a 
sentence  or  paragraph,  (b)  To  be  able  to  answer  the 
questions  of  the  book,  (c)  To  be  able  to  illustrate  cer- 
tain sentences,  paragraphs,  or  sections,  (d)  To  be  able 
to  give  a  pantomime  of  certain  sections  or  to  dramatize 
the  story,  (e)  To  be  able  to  answer  questions  asked  by 
pupils  or  teacher,  (f)  To  be  able  to  outline  the  lesson 
and  then  give  the  substance  of  the  thought  of  each  sec- 
tion, (g)  To  be  able  to  read  rapidly  and  then  to  give 
the  thought  of  a  section  of  the  lesson. 

Class  Procedure.  Class  procedure  should  include  the 
preparation  for  the  new  subject-matter,  its  presentation, 
and  often  the  suggested  application.  This  part  of  the 
plan  is  of  the  utmost  importance  since  on  it  depends  the 
success  of  the  recitation.  The  teacher  must  know  just 
how  she  is  to  handle  the  subject-matter  in  order  success- 
fully to  accomplish  her  aim.  She  must  have  planned 
carefully  how  to  arouse  the  child  to  the  consciousness  of 
a  practical  reason  for  doing  the  thing  she  desires  done. 
Her  questions  should  be  very  clear,  definite,  and  to  the 
point. 


114  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 

First  Grade 

I.  Subject:   Silent  Reading. 

II.  Topics:  "The  Fox  and  the  Little  Red  Hen." 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  test  the  child's  power 
in  gaining  the  thought  of  the  lesson.  (2)  To  train  him 
in  gathering  the  thought  from  the  printed  page  by  the 
use  of  motor  activity.  (3)  To  train  him  to  gather  the 
main  thought  of  a  section  of  the  lesson. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  show  how  much  he 
knows  about  the  lesson  without  referring  to  the  book. 
(2)  To  be  able  to  give  the  thought  of  a  sentence  or  a 
section  of  the  lesson.  (3)  To  illustrate  the  different 
sentences  by  drawings.  (4)  To  dramatize  a  section  of 
the  story. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1  1 

The  recall  of  the  facts  Preparation:    "What   is  our   les- 

gained  in  the  study  pe-  son  about?  I  wonder  how  much  you 
riod.  (See  Chapter  VIII,  know  about  it?  Suppose  we  first 
pages  97  tolOl.)  have    a    lesson    with    closed    books. 

Where  did  the  little  red  hen  live? 
How  many  rooms  did  she  have? 
Where  did  the  old  fox  live?  What 
kind  of  fox  was  he?  Why  do  you 
suppose  he  was  called  a  sly  fox? 
Why  had  he  not  been  able  to  catch 
the  little  red  hen?  What  did  he 
get  to  carry  her  in?  What  did  he 
tell  his  mother?  How  did  he  get 
into  the  house?  Where  did  he  hide?" 


The  Recitation         ,  115 


The  Little  Red  Hen  Presentation :  "Take  your  book 
and  the  Fox.  (See  Chap-  and  read  the  first  three  sentences  si- 
ter  VIII,  pages  98  to  lently,  and  then  tell  me  what  they 
99.)  are  about.     Draw  me  a  picture  that 

a.  The  first  section.  will   illustrate  these  three  sentences. 

b.  The  second  section.      Find  just   what  the  next   four   sen- 

c.  The  third  section.        tences  are  about.    What  do  they  tell? 

Find  what  the  remainder  of  the  les- 
son tells-  Could  you  dramatize  that 
part?  Mary  may  come  and  manage 
it.  How  many  children  will  it  take, 
Mary?  Where  should  they  stand? 
Very  well,  you  may  choose  the  chil- 
dren and  tell  them  where  to  stand." 
The  children  are  to  act  out  this  sec- 
tion of  the  story  with  Mary  as  critic. 


The    dramatization    of  Application:       "Tomorrow      you 

the    story    for    another      may   go   to    the    second-grade    room 
grade.  and  dramatize  this  story." 


I.  Subject:    Oral  reading  recitation. 

II.  Topic:   "The  Fox  and  the  Little  Red  Hen." 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  grasp 
the  thought  of  the  story.  (2)  To  train  him  to  express 
this  thought  in  a  pleasing  manner. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  find  and  to  read  the 
sentences  illustrated.  (2)  To  express  the  thought  in  a 
natural  and  a  pleasing  manner. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

As  a  rule  the  oral  and  the  silent  reading  lessons  should 
be  combined  and  given  as  one  lesson.  This  makes  a 
smoother  and  more  interesting  type  of'  lesson. 


116 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Subject-Matter 

1 

Th'e  recall  of  the  as- 
signment made  in  Chap- 
ter VIII,  pages  99  to  101 


Procedure 


Preparation:  "What  is  our  les- 
son about?  Which  parts  did  I  tell 
you  to  study?  What  was  I  to  do? 
What  are  you  to  do  after  I  draw  the 
picture?  Very  well,  see  who  can 
find  this  sentence." 


"A  little  red  hen  lived 
in  a  house  in  the  woods." 


"Just  then  she  came 
out  to  get  some  wood  for 
her  fire." 


"One  day  the  fox  got 
a  big  bag." 


"A  little  red  hen  lived 
in  a  house  in  the  woods." 


Presentation:  Sketch  a  house 
with  some  trees  near  by.  "Find  the 
sentence  this  picture  illustrates.  Mary 
may  read  her  selection.  Was  that 
your  selection  ?  Did  you  imagine  you 
saw  a  house  in  the  woods  as  she 
read?  Sam,  see  if  you  can  make 
us   see   it." 

The  same  picture  is  used  for  the 
next  sentence  with  the  addition  of 
the  little  red  hen  by  a  pile  of  sticks. 
"Who  can  find  the  sentence  this  pic- 
ture illustrates  ?  Helen  may  read  her 
selection.  Was  that  your  choice? 
Did  you  imagine  you  saw  the  little 
red  hen  coming  out  of  the  house 
and  going  to  the  wood  pile  as  Helen 
read?  Glen,  see  if  you  can  read  it 
in  such  a  way  that  we  may  see  her." 

The  teacher  draws  a  fox  with  a 
bag  on  his  back.  She  then  has  this 
sentence  found  and  read  as  illus- 
trated above. 

"Suppose  you  begin  now  and  read 
the  story  in  the  order  that  it  is  told 
in  the  lesson.  Who  would  like  to 
read  the  section  that  tells  where  the 


The  Recitation 


117 


"She  had  a  little  bed- 
room, a  little  parlor,  and 
a  little  kitchen." 


"There    was    a    little 
cupboard  in  the  kitchen." 


little  red  hen  lived?  Suppose  I  did 
not  know  where  she  lived  and  were 
to  ask  you,  how  would  you  say  it? 
See  if  you  can  read  it  just  as  you 
would  tell  me." 

"Read  the  part  that  tells  about  the 
different  rooms.  If  you  had  been  to 
visit  the  little  red  hen,  how  would 
you  tell  me  about  her  rooms,  John? 
How  would  you  tell  me,  James?" 

"What  did  the  little  red  hen  have 
in  her  kitchen?  Do  you  suppose  that 
was  all  she  had?  Then  why  is  this 
especially  mentioned?  Read  it  just 
as  you  would  tell  me  about  it." 

This  procedure  should  be  continued 
through  the  entire  lesson.  By  means 
of  questions  and  suggestions  the 
child  should  be  helped  in  expressing 
the  thought  in  a  pleasing  manner. 


The  reading  or  telling         Application:    "Read   or   tell   this 
of  the  story  to  parents.        story  to  your  father  and  mother." 


Second  or  Third  Grade 

I.  Subject:     Silent  Reading. 

II.  Topic:   "The  Wonder  Flower."    Part  I. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  test  the  child's  ability 
in  gathering  the  thought  from  the  printed  page.  (2) 
To  teach  him  systematic  thinking  by  outlining  the  lesson. 
(3)  To  develop  his  power  of  expression.  (4)  To  train 
him  to  give  the  substance  of  the  thought  by  sections. 
(5)  To  train  him  to  think  clearly  while  standing. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  show  that  he  knows  the 
lesson  by  answering  the  questions  which  the  teacher  asks. 


118 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


(2)  To  find  the  different  sections  of  the  story.  (3)  To 
come  before  the  class  and  tell  the  different  sections  from 
the  outline. 

V.     Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 

1 

The  recall  of  the 
thoughts  gained  through 
the  study  lesson.  (See 
Chapter  VIII,  pages  102 
to  105.) 


Procedure 

1 

Preparation:  "What  is  the  title 
of  our  lesson?  Does  this  fit  the  sec- 
tion we  had  today?  What  would  be 
a  better  title?  I  wonder  how  much 
you  know  about 'this  story?  Let's 
see  if  you  can  answer  my  questions 
without  referring  to  the  book."  If 
the  teacher  so  desires,  she  can  give 
the  children  a  lesson  which  they  have 
not  studied,  and  then  ask  questions 
and  allow  them  to  find  the  answers 
by  reading  the  section  silently. 

'J What  did  Carl  do?  To  whom 
did  the  sheep  belong?  With  whom 
did  Carl  live?  Describe  his  home. 
Describe  the  scenery  around  Carl's 
home.  What  did  Carl  love?  Which 
did  he  love  best?  What  did  Carl  do 
with  the  sheep  in  the  morning?  When 
did  he  bring  them  back?  What  did 
Carl  do  besides  care  for  the  sheep? 
What  did  his  mother  do?  Why  did 
Carl  help  his  mother?  Were  he  and 
his  mother  happy?" 


a.  Carl's  work. 

b.  Carl's  home. 

c     Scenery    around 
Carl's  home. 


Presentation:  "How  many  things 
are  told  in  our  story?  Let  me  write 
them  on  the  board.  Read  the  first 
paragraph  silently.    What  is  it  about? 


The  Recitation 


119 


d.  The     things     Carl 
loved. 

e.  Carl's    work    as    a 
shepherd. 

f.  The  home  work  of 
Carl  and  his  mother. 


How  shall  we  state  that?  Read  the 
second  paragraph  silently.  What  is 
it  about?  How  shall  we  state  that? 
What  is  the  third  paragraph  about? 
How  shall  we  state  it?"  Each  para- 
graph should  be  developed  in  the 
same  way. 


Second  or  Third  Grade 

I.  Subject:   Oral  Reading. 

II.  Topic:    "The  Wonder  Flower,"  Part  I. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  inter- 
pret the  story  and  understand  its  sentiment.  (2)  To 
help  him  express  this  thought  in  a  pleasing  manner. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  read  the  section  illus- 
trated by  the  teacher.  (2)  To  read  in  such  a  way  that 
his  audience  will  form  vivid  mental  pictures. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 

1 

The  recall  of  the  as- 
signment made  the  day 
before-  (See  'Chapter 
VIII,  pages  102  to  105.) 


Procedure 

1 

Preparation:  "What  is  our  les- 
son about?  Does  it  say  anything 
about  the  'Wonder  Flower'  in  today's 
lesson?  What  does  it  tell?  What 
did  I  say  I  was  going  to  do  today? 
Did  you  practice  reading  so  that  you 
could  read  the  paragraphs  I  illus- 
trate?" 


Paragraph  1. 


Presentation:  "Let  me  draw  a 
picture  and  then  see  if  you  can  find 
the  paragraph  it  illustrates."  The 
teacher  draws  a  picture  of  a  boy  and 
some  sheep.     "Who  thinks  he  knows 


120 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Paragraph  5. 


Paragraph  2 


Paragraph  4. 


which  paragraph  this  illustrates? 
John,  you  may  read  your  selection  in 
such  a  way  that  we  may  close  our 
eyes  and  imagine  we  see  the  boy 
and  the  sheep.  That  was  good.  Do 
you  agree  with  his  selection?  Mary, 
let  us  see  what  kind  of  picture  you 
can  make  us  see." 

"Find  this  paragraph."  She  draws 
a  picture  of  a  river,  a  sheep,  a  boy, 
and  a  house  under  the  trees.  "Who 
is  ready  to  read  the  paragraph?  Do 
you  agree  with  the  selection?  Try 
to  make  us  see  the  picture,  Sam. 
What  does  the  first  sentence  tell? 
What  picture  does  that  make  you 
see?  Who  will  read  just  that  sen- 
tence, and  make  us  see  the  picture?''' 
The  teacher  should  allow  a  number 
of  children  to  try  their  skill  in  mak- 
ing others  see  the  picture. 

Each  sentence  may  be  handled  in 
a  similar  way. 

"Let  us  see  who  can  find  this  para- 
graph first."  She  draws  a  picture  of 
a.  tiny  house,  a  garden,  and  a  white 
goat.  The  reading  of  this  paragraph 
is  treated  in  the  same  way  as  that 
of  the  first  one. 

She  then  draws  a  picture  of  a  river, 
trees,  mountains,  birds,  butterflies, 
and  flowers.  The  paragraph  is  found 
and  read,  and  she  then  helps  the  chil- 
dren to  develop  an  appreciation  of  its 
beauty  by  such  questions  as  follow: 
"What  does  shining  river  mean? 
Why  do  you  suppose  Carl  loved  the 
shining  river?  Would  you  like  to 
see  it?     What  does  he  mean  by  gay 


The  Recitation  121 


butterflies?  Do  you  ever  listen  to 
the  singing  birds  and  watch  the  gay 
*  butterflies?  How  do  you  feel  when 
your  hear  the  birds  singing  and  see 
the  pretty  butterflies  flitting  about? 
What  did  Carl  love  best?  Why  do 
you  suppose  he  loved  the  flowers 
best  ?" 

The  other  paragraphs  in  the  lesson 
should  be  illustrated  and  developed 
in  a  similar  way.  This  is  possible  in 
all  except  the  last  one.  This  may  be 
developed  by  the  teacher  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  "Who  can  find  and 
read  the  paragraph  that  tells  about 
Carl's  love  for  his  mother,  and  of 
their  happiness?" 

Practically  all  the  suggestions  for  the  motivation  of 
the  oral  reading  may  be  applied  to  this  lesson.  Each 
motive  would  call  for  a  procedure  in  keeping  with  that 
motive. 

The  questions  used  in  the  type  lessons  on  the  reading 
of  the  story  of  "The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain  of 
Wheat,"  and  in  the  original  story  of  the  "Excursion" 
(Chapter  V,  pages  65  to  67),  are  suggestive  of  the 
questions  which  are  asked  in  order  to  help  the  child 
develop  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  It  is  a  pernicious 
habit  for  the  teacher  to  conduct  a  reading  lesson  in  such 
a  way  that  the  child  gains  nothing  from  his  oral  reading. 
When  her  sole  effort  consists  in  saying  "Read  the  next 
sentence,  John,"  she  is  wasting  a  valuable  opportunity, 
and  the  child  is  wasting  time.  By  her  questions  and  sug- 
gestions she  should  lead  him  to  see  that  every  sentence  or 
paragraph  embodies  a  thought  which  he  is  to  interpret 
through  his  oral  reading. 


122  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

REFERENCES 

Briggs  and  Coffman,  Reading  in  the  Public  Schools 

Jenkins,  Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades 

Klapper,  Teaching  Children  to  Read 

Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 


CHAPTER  X 

LANGUAGE 

AIM 

All  thought  has  a  tendency  to  find  outward  expression. 
It  may  be  through  vocal  language,  written  language, 
action,  fine  arts,  industrial  arts,  or  household  arts. 

If  nature  has  endowed  the  child  with  the  necessary 
tendencies  for  thought  and  action,  the  development  and 
ultimate  use  of  these  will  be  a  matter  of  training ;  hence, 
the  stimulation  of  thought  and  its  direction  are  impor- 
tant features  in  the  educational  process. 

In  the  language  work  the  teacher  is  primarily  interested 
in  the  expression  of  thought  through  vocal  and  written 
speech,  hence  the  other  forms  of  expression  are  only 
briefly  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

As  there  can  be  no  expression  without  impression,  the 
problem  of  the  teacher  is  of  a  two-fold  nature:  (1)  the 
amusing  and  stimulating  of  thought,  and  (2)  the  train- 
ing of  the  child  to  correct,  clear,  fluent,  and  forceful 
expression  of  this  thought. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

To  express  thought  fluently,  clearly,  and  forcefully 
the  child  must  have  a  large  stock  of  available  words  and 
considerable  training  in  the  use  of  these  words. 

Thought  may  be  aroused  and  stimulated  and  language 
power  developed  through  use  of  literature,  conversations 

123 


124  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


about  child's  daily  life,  nature  study,  social  life,  and  games. 

In  planning  for  the  work  to  be  accomplished  in  the 
language  course  it  is  essential  that  each  teacher  plan  her 
own  course  of  study,  as  this  must  be  based  on  the  needs 
of  the  particular  class  in  question.  She  should  mix  and 
mingle  freely  with  the  children  in  their  school  life  and 
in  their  home  life.  She  should  constantly  endeavor  to 
lead  them  to  free  and  spontaneous  expression  in  all  their 
work.  Only  in  this  way  can  she  really  discover  the  actual 
language  needs  of  the  class.  She  should  keep  a  list  of 
the  errors  heard.  She  should  not  attempt  to  correct  all 
these  errors  at  once  but  the  most  glaring  and  grating  ones 
should  be  selected  for  the  first  work. 

Some  of  the  incorrect  language  expressions  which  are 
common  errors  with  the  child  will  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing list:  "I  have  took"  for  "I  have  taken";  "I  seen" 
for  "I  have  seen";  "I  have  saw"  for  "I  saw";  "I  taken" 
for  "I  took";  "set"  for  "sit";  "git"  for  "get";  "aint" 
for  "am  not" ;  "comin"  for  "coming" ;  "come"  for 
"came" ;  "run"  for  "ran" ;  "have  got"  for  "have." 

Course  of  Study 

The  language  course  of  study  will  contain  suggestions 
for  the  work  in  literature,  since  this  is  an  essential  part 
of  the  language  work. 

First  Grade.  It  will  include  stories  reproduced 
and  dramatized;  poems  memorized;  thought  expressed 
through  handwork ;  conversational  exercises  about  nature 
observations,  picture  study,  and  daily  exercises;  expres- 
sion games  to  establish  correct  habits  of  expression ;  use 
of  the  period,  question  mark,  capital  letter  in  a  proper 
name  and  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence;  very  simple 
letter  writing. 


Language  125 

Second  Grade.    Stories  reproduced  and  dramatized; 

poems  memorized ;  thought  expressed  through  handwork ; 
conversational  exercises  as  in  the  first  grade ;  expression 
games  to  correct  errors  in  speech;  letter  writing;  very 
simple  class  compositions  and  stories  based  on  nature 
study,  literature,  picture  study,  and  history  or  social 
life;  abbreviations,  as  Mr.,  Mrs.,  St.,  and  other  forms 
used  in  this  grade;  use  of  capitals  in  days  of  the  week, 
in  months,  and  in  the  first  word  of  each  line  of  poetry; 
the  use  of  quotation  marks  and  of  the  comma  after  a 
word  of  address. 

Third  Grade.  Stories  reproduced  and  dramatized; 
poems  memorized  and  recited ;  thought  expressed  through 
handwork;  conversational  exercises  based  on  nature 
study,  picture  study,  literature,  and  history  or  social  life ; 
composition  or  story  work  based  on  conversational  exer- 
cise ;  letter  writing ;  expression  games  to  establish  correct 
habits  of  speech;  punctuation  marks  needed  in  written 
work;  abbreviations  for  such  terms  as  the  child  uses  in 
his  written  work. 

METHOD 

The  use  of  words  and  expressions  is  a  most  important 
part  of  language  power,  since  it  is  an  almost  infallible 
key  to  one's  cultural  attainment.  The  most  inspiring 
thought  loses  force  if  it  is  expressed  in  incorrect 
language. 

The  old  method  of  teaching  correct  forms  of  expres- 
sion was  to  have  the  rules  of  grammar  memorized.  Very 
little  attention  was  given  to  training  the  child  to  use  cor- 
rect forms.  The  success  of  this  method  is  measured  by 
its  result.  We  have  only  to  listen  to  the  speech  of  many 
who  were  trained  in  English  by  the  use  of  the  rule  alone 


126  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

to  realize  that  there  is  something  woefully  lacking.  Many 
of  these  persons  can  quote  glibly  every  rule  in  the  gram- 
mar and  then  unconsciously  break  each  of  these  rules  in 
ordinary  conversation. 

The  way  a  person  expresses  thought  is  a  matter  of 
habit — a  habit  which  is  usually  formed  long  before  he  is 
able  to  understand  the  meaning  of  a  rule.  The  period  of 
easiest  habit  formation  is  in  early  childhood,  and  hence 
it  is  very  essential  that  the  child  form  correct  language 
habits.  He  should  say  things  in  a  certain  way  not  because 
of  a  rule  but  because  he  has  formed  the  habit  of  saying 
it  in  that  right  way.  It  is  with  great  difficulty  that  a 
habit  is  broken,  and  the  older  the  habit,  the  harder  it  is 
to  break.  Consequently,  this  phase  of  the  language  work 
should  receive  especial  attention  in  the  primary  grades. 

That  language  habits  may  be  successfully  established, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  have  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  language  forms  and  that  she  use  these  forms 
correctly  in  her  own  speech  since  the  child  is  a  great 
imitator.  The  child  should  first  be  given  to  understand 
that  there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way  to  say  things.  This 
should  be  followed  by  the  awakening  of  the  desire  to 
use  the  correct  form,  for  if  he  is  consciously  trying  to 
use  the  correct  form,  there  is  great  gain  inasmuch  as  he 
will  form  the  habit  of  watching  his  own  speech.  The 
teacher  should  praise  him  whenever  he  uses  the  correct 
form,  as  this  will  help  to  make  the  desire  to  use  it  more 
prominent  in  his  mind.  She  should  use  her  own  judg- 
ment in  correcting  errors  in  the  child's  speech.  Correc- 
tion should  never  be  given  in  a  way  that  will  tend  to 
embarrass  him  or  that  will  attract  the  attention  of  the 
other  children.  When  he  makes  a  mistake,  if  the  teacher 
will  quietly  repeat  the  correct  form  he  will  usually  cor- 


Language  127 

rect  the  mistake  and  go  on  without  any  embarrassment 
and  the  attention  of  the  other  children  will  not  be  at- 
tracted. If  this  cannot  be  done,  it  will  probably  be  better 
to  make  a  note  of  the  error  and  then  plan  some  game  or 
exercise  in  which  there  will  be  a  frequent  repetition  of 
the  correct  form. 

The  aim  in  all  language  work  should  be  to  direct  the 
attention  toward  the  correct  form,  rather  than  to  the 
incorrect  form.  For  this  reason,  the  practice  of  class 
criticism  in  primary  grades  is  questionable.  A  habit  of 
expression  is  formed  through  frequent  repetition  of  the 
expression.  Is  it  not  then  a  questionable  procedure  to 
train  the  child  to  give  attention  to  the  incorrect  form? 
Would  it  not  be  more  effective  to  train  him  to  note  the 
correct  expression? 

The  uses  of  literature  in  teaching  the  child  to  use  cor- 
rect forms  of  speech  will  be  fully  discussed  in  the 
succeeding  chapter. 

Games.  In  establishing  a  correct  habit  of  speech 
the  teacher  should  not  be  satisfied  with  calling  the  child's 
attention  to  mistakes,  but  she  should  plan  for  a  sys- 
tematic repetition  of  the  correct  form. 

A  very  effective  device  to  use  is  found  in  the  expres- 
sion games.  In  these  games  there  should  be  a  frequent 
and  interesting  repetition  of  the  correct  form.  The 
exercises  or  games  should  be  varied  from  day  to  day 
and  may  occupy  only  a  five-minute  period. 

Many  suggestions  for  games  may  be  found  in  educa- 
tional journals  and  in  books  of  games.  The  ingenious 
teacher  can  adapt  many  of  the  well  known  children's 
games  to  suit,  her  needs. 

Following  are  suggestions  for  expression  games  and 
exercises : 


128  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

1.  A  Penny,  a  Penny.  Aim,  to  establish  the  habit 
of  saying  "J  haven't  any."  This  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
old  game  of  "Thimble."  Two  children  come  forward 
while  the  others  remain  in  their  seats.  One  child  is 
given  a  penny.  He  goes  from  child  to  child,  pretending 
to  give  the  penny  to  each  one.  The  second  child  watches 
to  see  which  one  receives  the  penny.  When  the  first 
child  has  been  to  each  one,  he  takes  his  seat,  and  the 
second  child  tries  to  guess  who  has  the  penny.  He  calls 
a  child's  name  and  says,  "A  penny,  a  penny."  This 
child  answers,  "I  haven't  any,"  or  "I  have  one,"  as  the 
case  may  be.  When  the  penny  is  located  another  guesser 
is  selected,  and  the  child  having  the  penny  gives  it  to  some 
one  else. 

2.  I  Saw.  To  establish  the  habit  of  saying  "I  saw." 
A  number  of  objects  are  placed  on  the  table.  The  chil- 
dren form  a  line  and  march  around  the  table.  The  aim 
is  to  discover  who  can  see  the  greatest  number  of  objects. 
After  the  class  is  reseated,  each  child  in  turn  says,  "I 
saw ' ,"  telling  what  he  saw. 

3.  I  Have  Seen.  To  establish  the  habit  of  saying  "I 
have  seen."  The  teacher  says,  "I  wonder  how  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  birds  you  have  seen  ?"  Each  child  answers 
by  saying,  "I  have  seen  a  robin."  The  game  is  continued 
until  all  have  told  the  different  kinds  of  birds  they  have 
seen.  This  exercise  may  be  varied  by  letting  each  child 
tell  about  different  animals,  flowers,  trees,  or  vegetables. 

4.  The  King's  Gold.  Aim,  to  establish  the  habit 
of  saying,  "It  was  not  I,"  and  "It  was  he  or  she."  One 
child  goes  from  the  room.  The  other  children  hide  their 
eyes.  The  teacher  goes  through  the  aisles  and  touches 
one  child.  She  then  gives  the  signal  for  the  children  to 
sit  up.    The  absent  child  is  recalled.     He  calls  a  child's 


Language  129 

name  and  says,  "Was  it  you,  who  stole  the  king's  gold?" 
This  child  touches  another  child  and  answers,  "It  was 
not  I  who  stole  the  king's  gold,  it  was  he  (or  she)." 
This  child  rises  and  says,  "It  was  not  I  who  stole  the 
king's  gold,  it  was  he  (or  she)."  The  game  continues 
until  the  one  touched  by  the  teacher  is  discovered.  This 
child  goes  from  the  room  and  the  game  is  played  as 
before. 

Other  suggestions  for  games  may  be  found  in  either 
of  the  following  books: 

Aldine,  Language  Games,  Newson  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Leiper,  Language  in  the  Elementary  Grades,  Ginn  & 
Co.,  Chicago. 

Conversational  Exercises.  Another  source  for  de- 
veloping thought  and  the  power  to  communicate  thought 
is  through  conversation.  Topics  in  which  the  child  is 
interested  should  be  selected;  for  instance,  games,  home 
and  daily  life,  pets,  nature  study,  pictures,  or  the  read- 
ing lesson.  By  questions  and  suggestions  the  child  is 
led  to  talk  about  these  things.  This  should  give  an 
opportunity  to  develop  correct  and  fluent  expression,  and 
the  ability  to  think  and  talk  while  standing. 

The  study  of  pictures  representing  child  life  will  form 
an  excellent  basis  for  conversational  exercises,  and  for 
original  stories.  The  picture  should  be  chosen  with  care 
and  should  be  a  copy  of  a  painting  by  a  good  artist. 

The  teacher  should  select  those  that  tell  a  story,  and 
the  child  should  be  trained  to  see  the  story  in  the  pic- 
ture. Originality  in  composing  stories  should  be  en- 
couraged. 

Suitable  pictures  may  be  purchased  from  the  Perry 
Pictures  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass. 

Other  Forms  of  Expression.     Any  form  by  which 


130  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


thought  is  communicated  has  a  place"  in  the  study  of 
language.  The  child  should  be  encouraged  to  express  the 
thoughts  acquired  through  literature,  nature  study,  or 
social  life  by  some  form  of  handwork.  Among  the  best 
forms  of  handwork  are  the  sand-table,  clay  modeling, 
free-hand  paper-cutting,  drawing,  and  paper-folding. 
This  work  should  be  developed  as  the  outward  expres- 
sion of  the  inner  thought.  These  forms  of  expression 
will  be  more  fully  treated  in  Chapter  XX. 

WRITTEN  LANGUAGE 

Problem.  In  the  primary  grades,  the  larger  part 
of  the  time  should  be  given  to  oral  language.  The  first 
and  greatest  problem  is  to  train  the  child  to  express 
thought  in  correct,  clear,  fluent,  and  forceful  oral  Eng- 
lish. If  this  is  successfully  accomplished  the  problem  of 
written  English  will  resolve  itself  into  sentence  structure, 
the  proper  use  of  capital  letters,  punctuation  marks, 
proper  arrangement  on  the  page,  and  correct  spelling. 
A  common  mistake  of  primary  teachers  has  been  the 
neglecting  of  the  oral  language  and  the  over-emphasizing 
of  the  written.  They  have  worked  on  the  supposition 
that  correct  and  fluent  written  expression  results  in  cor- 
rect and  fluent  oral  expression.  This  has  not  proved  the 
case,  as  a  person  can  often  produce  a  beautifully  writ- 
ten composition  or  letter,  and  at  the  same  time  make 
many  errors  in  his  oral  speech.  Then,  if  a  child  has  to 
contend  with  the  expression  side  of  his  written  work, 
his  task  is  much  greater  and  the  time  required  for  its 
successful  accomplishment  will  be  much  longer. 

Subject-Matter.    Very  little  written  language  should 
be  attempted  in  the  first  grade  inasmuch  as  the  need 


Language  131 

for  oral  expression  far  outranks  the  need  for  written 
expression.  However,  a  small  amount  of  letter  writing 
may  be  given.  This  letter  writing  may  take  the  form 
of  a  simple  invitation,  or  the  body  of  the  letter  may  con- 
sist of  a  copied  rhyme  or  of  a  selection  from  the  reading 
lesson. 

The  written  work  of  the  second  and  third  grades  will 
consist  of  the  copying  of  simple  rhymes,  poems,  sen- 
tences, compositions,  written  reproduction  of  stories,  and 
original  stories.  Much  of  the  time  should  be  given  to 
letter  writing,  inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  people  write 
nothing  except  letters.  If  spelling  is  taught  in  the  mod- 
ern way  it  will  include  the  writing,  from  dictation,  of 
sentences  and  paragraphs-  from  stories  and  of  stanzas 
from  poems.  This  is  an  added  opportunity  for  written 
language  work. 

Method.  It  is  a  simple  task  to  teach  the  little  child 
correct  written  form.  The  endless  opportunity  for  black- 
board work  brings  in  the  use  of  capitals  and  punctuation 
marks.  In  this  way  he  may  be  made  sensitive  to  form. 
The  best  time  to  teach  the  details  of  written  form  is 
when  the  child  contributes  the  original  stories  which  have 
been  developed  in  the  conversational  exercises.  On  these 
occasions  he  gives  the  natural  phrasing  which  makes 
punctuation  a  necessity.  He  asks  the  question  or  makes 
the  statement  and  thus  he  sees  the  need  of  the  question 
mark  and  the  period. 

If  the  child  is  to  use  correct  written  English,  no  in- 
correct form  should  ever  be  placed  before  him  either  in 
the  teacher's  work  or  in  any  other  which  is  presented 
to  him.  Though  he  does  not  understand  the  proper  use 
of  capitals,  punctuation  marks,  or  the  proper  arrange- 
ment of   form,  all  work  placed  before  him  should  be 


132  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

absolutely  correct  as  to  these  points,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  possibility  of  an  erroneous  impression.  In  all  his 
own  written  work  the  teacher  should  require  accuracy 
as  to  arrangement,  capitals-,  and  punctuation.  The  child 
should  never  be  asked  to  write  anything  unless  he  has 
knowledge  enough  to  do  it  correctly,  else  the  result  will 
be  the  formation  of  an  incorrect  habit. 

No  error  in  the  child's  written  work  should  ever  be 
allowed  to  pass  unnoticed.  He  should  be  required  to 
correct  his  own  errors,  since  this  will  serve  to  impress 
the  correct  form  as  well  as  to  make  him  more  careful. 

Rules.  The  rules  for  the  heading,  the  margin,  the 
indention  of  the  paragraph,  the  use  of  the  capital  let- 
ters, the  proper  punctuation,  and  other  points  of  arrange- 
ment may  be  effectively  taught  by  the  inductive  method. 
It  is  worth  considerably  more  to  the  child  to  examine 
his  book  with  the  attention  directed  toward  the  point 
in  question  and  discover  the  way  to  do  the  thing,  than 
to  be  told  how  to  do  it.  If  the  rule  is  worked  out  in 
this  way  it  will  mean  much  more  to  him,  since  the  knowl- 
edge of  it  is  the  result  of  his  own  effort.  He  must 
have  thought  about  it  before  he  can  form  the  rule.  If 
he  should  forget  this  rule,  he  should  go  back  to  the 
source  to  refresh  his  memory. 

THE  LESSON  PLAN 

The  language  lessons  are  mainly  of  two  types,  the  in- 
ductive lesson  and  the  drill  lesson.  The  inductive  les- 
son, which  may  also  be  a  study  lesson,  is  the  lesson 
where  new  rules  or  definitions  are  worked  out.  It  con- 
sists of  (1)  a  problem,  (2)  a  study  of  material  which 
will  solve  the  problem,  and  (3)  the  summary  or  solution 


Language  133 

of  the  problem.  However  the  majority  of  the  language 
lessons  are  drill  lessons  in  which  the  aim  is  to  establish 
a  certain  habit  of  response.  These  lessons  should  con- 
form to  the  principles  governing  the  drill  lesson ;  namely, 
(1)  motive,  (2)  clear  idea  of  the  desired  response,  (3) 
attentive  repetition,  (4)  no  exception,  (5)  review,  and 
(6)  application. 

1.  Motive.  As  previously  stated,  the  mind  accom- 
plishes a  task  more  quickly  and  with  greater  ease  if  it  is 
held  to  the  task  by  a  conscious  and  definite  aim  or  pur- 
pose. 

The  observance  of  this  law  is  especially  valuable  in 
the  language  lesson,  which  is  more  or  less  a  mechanical 
process. 

First,  the  teacher  must  have  a  general  aim  for  the 
work  as  a  whole,  with  specific  aims  for  each  separate 
lesson  or  lesson  unit.  The  general  aim  has  already  been 
stated  as  (a)  the  arousing  and  stimulating  of  thought, 
and  (b)  the  training  the  child  to  express  this  thought 
correctly,  clearly,  fluently,  and  forcefully.  The  specific 
aims  for  the  individual  lesson  should  be  some  one  or 
more  features  of  this  general  aim. 

The  child's  motive  will  vary  with  the  subject  matter. 
In  the  expression  game  it  will  be  to  play  the  game  cor- 
rectly or  it  may  be  to  see  how  many  opportunities  he 
can  find  to  use  a  certain  word  or  expression.  Again  he 
may  be  interested  in  writing  an  invitation  to  his  mother, 
or  he  may  want  to  discover  the  story  of  a  picture  and 
then  tell  an  original  story  about  it.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  whatever  the  problem  or  motive,  it  should  appeal  to 
him  as  something  worth  doing. 

2.  Clear  Idea  of  Response.  Before  the  important 
step  of  repetition  begins  the  child  should  have  a  clear 


134  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


idea  of  the  desired  response  in  order  to  guard  against 
the  repetition  of  an  error.  If  it  is  an  expression  game, 
he  should  hear  clearly  and  understand  the  expression 
which  is  the  key  to  the  game.  If  it  is  a  word  which  he 
is  to  add  to  his  vocabulary,  he  should  know  both  the  cor- 
rect pronunciation  and  the  correct  meaning  of  the  word 
before  the  repetition  of  its  use  begins.  If  it  is  a  letter, 
he  should  have  a  clear  and  a  definite  idea  of  the  points 
involved  before  beginning  the  repetition. 

3.  Attentive  Repetition.  Before  a  certain  habit  of 
response  is  permanently  established  there  must  be  many 
repetitions.  The  number  of  repetitions  necessary  is  ma- 
terially reduced  if  concentrated  attention  accompanies 
each  repetition.  Therefore,  the  teacher  should  plan  for 
the  conscious  repetition  of  the  response  which  she  is 
endeavoring  to  establish.  The  child  may  play  a  variety 
of  games  which  involve  a  certain  expression;  the  ex- 
pression is  brought  out  in  a  story  or  in  a  poem;  or  a 
story  which  involves  the  expression  is  dramatized. 

The  different  devices  for  bringing  in  the  repetition  of 
the  expression  utilize  the  law  of  association,  which  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  establishing  a  desired  response. 

4.  No  Exceptions.  The  repetitions  should  be  so 
planned  that  no  error  will  be  made,  otherwise  the  task 
of  establishing  the  habit  will  be  very  much  retarded. 
Not  only  should  the  teacher  try  to  avoid  possibilities  of 
error  in  the  language  period  but  she  should  be  con- 
stantly on  the  alert  whenever  the  child  has  occasion  to 
talk  or  to  write. 

5.  Reviews.  The  teacher  should  recognize  the  im- 
portance of  the  principle  of  review  in  establishing  lan- 
guage habits,  and  plan  for  frequent  and  systematic  re- 
view of  each  point  covered.    After  the  child  has  gained 


Language  135 

some  skill  -in  playing  expression  games,  more  elaborate 
games,  in  which  there  is  a  review  of  two  or  more  ex- 
pressions, may  be  utilized.  Stories  or  poems  may  be 
selected  with  a  view  to  reviewing  language  expressions. 

6.  Application.  The  teacher  should  make  many 
opportunities  in  the  various  schoolroom  activities  for 
the  application  of  the  habits  established  in  the  language 
course.  She  should  praise  all  attempts  to  use  these 
habits  in  both  home  and  school  activities. 

(See  References,  page  147.) 


CHAPTER  XI 

LANGUAGE-(Continued) 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 

First,  second,  or  third  grades 

I.  Subject:    Language  game. 

II.  Topic:    The  expression,  "I  saw." 

III.  Teachers  Motive:  (1)  To  bring  the  expression 
"I  saw"  to  the  child's  conscious  field.  (2)  To  provide 
an  interesting  means  for  the  repetition  of  the  expression. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  To  play  the  game  without  mak- 
ing a  mistake. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

2  2 

"I  saw"  Presentation:    "Boy  and  girls,  I 

know  a  game  which  I  am  sure  you 
will  enjoy  playing.  It  is  the  game 
'I  saw!  Some  one  'begins  by  telling 
that  he  saw  an  object  of  a  certain 
color.  For  example,  Roy  says,  'I 
saw  a  red  bird/  Then  all  the  others 
must  follow  suit  by  telling  of  some- 
thing red  they  have  seen.  For  ex- 
ample, John  follows  Roy  by  saying, 
'I  saw  a  red  house.'  As  we  play 
each  one  must  be  sure  to  say  'I  saw' 
or  he  will  have  to  pay  a  forfeit. 
136 


Language  137 

"After  each  one  has  followed 
Roy's  suit,  then  John  may  start  the 
next  round  by  changing  the  color; 
for  example,  he  says,  'I  saw  a  white 
cow,'  then  each  of  the  others  must 
follow  suit." 

Play  the  game  for  several  minutes. 


I  saw  Summary:    "What   was   the    ex- 

pression   we    used    each    time?" 


Explanation    of    game  Application:  "When  you  go  home 

with  emphasis  on  1  saw.      tell  mother  all  about  the  game.     See 

if  you  can  tell  her  all  the  different 
things  we  saw.  How  would  it  do 
to  tell  her  like  this,  John  said,  'I  saw 
a  white  cow  ?'  " 

First,  second,  or  third  grades 

I.  Subject:    Conversational  Exercise. 

II.  Topic:    Picture,  "Can't  You  Talk?" 

III.  Teachers  Motive:    (1)  To  stimulate  the  child's 
thought.     (2)  To  develop  his  power  of  expression. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:     (1)  To  learn  the  story  of  the 
picture.     (2)  To  tell  the  picture  story. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1  1 

Experience  with  a  baby  Preparation:     "Do    you    have    a 

and  a  dog.  baby  in  your  home?     How  old  is  it? 

Do  you  have  a  dog?  Is  the  baby 
afraid  of  it.  Does  he  ever  play  with 
the  dog?" 


Language 


139 


Picture :     "Can't    You  Presentation :     "Look   at  this  pic- 

Talk?"  ture  and  tell  me  what  you  see."    The 

teacher  allows  the  children  a  few 
minutes  in  which  to  examine  the  pic- 
ture. "Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  out 
the  story  of  this  picture.  What  kind 
of  dog  do  you  think  this  is?  What 
do  you  suppose  his  name  is?  Do 
you  think  he  likes  the  baby?  Why 
do  you  think  so?  Do  you  think  the 
baby  is  afraid  of  the  dog?  Why  do 
you  not  think  so  ?  What  do  you 
think  the  baby  would  like  to  say  to 
the  dog?  What  do  you  think  the 
dog  would  like  to  say? 

"What  is  the  cat  doing?  What 
do  you  suppose  he  would  like  to  say? 

"What  time  of  day  do  you  think 
it  is?  Why?  What  time  of  year  do 
you  think  it  is?     Why? 

"What  do  you  think  this  picture 
should  be  called?"  After  a  discus- 
sion of  different  names  suggested  by 
the  children,  the  teacher  may  tell  the 
artist's  name  for  it. 


An  imaginary  story  of 
the  picture. 


Summary:  "Do  you  think  you 
can  tell  the  story  of  the  picture? 
I  want  some  one  to  imagine  that 
this  is  your  baby  brother  or  sister 
and  your  dog  and  cat.  Then  tell  us 
the  story  about  the  baby  trying  to 
talk  to  the  dog."  The  teacher  should 
allow  as  many  children  as  will  vol- 
mteer  to  tell   a   story.     She   should 


140  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

praise  all  effort,  also  any  original 
suggestion.  In  the  second  and  third 
grades  the  story  may  be  written  after 
much  oral  discussion.  It  should  be 
made  a  class  exercise  until  the  teach- 
er is  sure  that  the  children  will  not 
make  errors  in  form  or  spelling. 


The  story  to  be  told  at  Application:    "What  will  you  tell 

home.  your  mother  about  the  picture?" 

Second  or  third  grade.  (For  a  simple  note  of  invita- 
tion suitable  for  a  first  grade  see  Chapter  XVI,  pages 
219-221.) 

I.  Topic:  A  Written  Invitation. 

II.  Teacher's.  Motive:  (1)  To  train  the  child  in  the 
written  mechanics  of  a  letter.  (2)  To  train  him  to  de- 
pend upon  himself. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  write  an  invitation  to 
his  mother  to  visit  the  school.  (2)  To  discover  the 
proper  way  of  writing  a  letter. 

IV.  Outline 

1.  Heading 

a.  address 

(1)  location 

(2)  capitals  and  punctuation 

b.  date 

(1)  location 

(2)  capitals  and  punctuation 

2.  Salutation 

a.  wording 

b.  location 

c.  capitals  and  punctuation 


Language 


141 


3.  Body 

a.  arrangement 

b.  margin 

4.  Closing 

a.  wording 

b.  location 

c.  capitals  and  punctuation 

5.  Address 

a.  location 

b.  arrangement 

c.  punctuation 

V.     Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter                                    Procedure 
1                                                      1 

Discussion  of  an  invi- 
tation to  the  mother 


Preparation:  "How  many  of  you 
would  like  to  invite  your  mothers  to 
come  to  visit  us  next  Friday  after- 
noon? How  can  we  get  the  invita- 
tion to  her  ?  Don't  you  think  it  would 
be  nice  to  write  her  a  letter  of  invi- 
tation? 

"Did  you  ever  receive  a  letter? 
What  is  the  first  thing  that  is  writ- 
ten in  a  letter?" 


A.    The  heading: 
(1)  Observation 
school 


Presentation:  "Examine  these 
letters  and  see  what  is  the  first 
thing."  The  teacher  should  have 
some  personal  letters  from  friends  in 
near-by  towns,  as  these  names  will 
be  familiar  to  the  children.  This 
will  aid  them  in  arriving  at  the  con- 
clusion  that  the  person  writing  the 


142 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


(a)  Location 


(b)  Capitaliz  a  t  i  o  n 
and  punctuation 
of  the  address 


letter  places  his  address  first.  "When 
you  have  found  the  first  word  in  a 
letter,  I  will  help  you  to  pronounce 
it  if  you  do  not  know  what  it  is." 
Each  child  is  permitted  to  'examine 
a  number  of  letters.  "What  is  the 
first  thing  written  each  time  ?  Why 
do  you  suppose  each  person  wrote 
the  name  of  a  place  the  first. thing? 
Then  what  is  the  first  thing  we  must 
write  ? 

"On  what  part  of  the  page  should 
we  write  the  name  of  our  school?" 
She  should  have  the  children  dis- 
cover the  answer  through  the  exami- 
nation of  several  letters.  "I  will 
mark  off  a  page  on  the  board.  Come 
and  show  me  exactly  where  to  write 
the  name. 

"Examine  the  letters  and  tell  me 
what  kind  of  letter  to  use  in  writ-) 
ing  the  name."  After  the  letters  are 
examined  she  has  the  children  make 
a  statement  of  the  kind  of  letter 
used.  "Look  in  the  paper  when  you 
go  home  and  see  if  all  the  names  of 
places  begin  with  capitals.  What 
punctuation  marks  are  used?"  The 
teacher  proceeds  as  before. 
Summary*  of    first    point    covered: 

"Show  me  where  you  will  write 
the  name  of  the  school  in  your  let- 
ter. What  kind  of  letter  will  you 
use  at  the  beginning  of  the  words? 
What  punctuation  marks?" 


Language 


143 


(2)  The  date 

(a)  location 

(b)  capitalization 
and  punctuation 


B.     Salutation : 
Dear  Mother 

(1)  wording 

(2)  location 

(3)  capitals  and  punc- 
tuation. 


The  teacher  marks  off  a  space  on 
the  board  to  represent  a  letter  and 
places  the  name  of  the  school  in  the 
proper  place  and  the  children  copy 
on  paper.  She  then  develops  the 
writing  of  the  date  in  the  same  way. 
The  teacher  has  calendars  examined, 
in  addition  to  the  letters,  to  discover 
the  rule  for  writing  the  name  of  the 
month  with  a  capital.  If  sufficient 
evidence  is  found,  the  children  are 
allowed  to  form  the  rule  for  writing 
th'e  name  of  the  month.  The  date  is 
then  added  to  the  letter. 

"Examine  the  letters  and  see  what 
comes  next."  The  teacher  should 
use  personal  letters  in  which  the 
name  and  address  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  letter  is  written  are 
omitted. 

"How  shall  we  say  it  in  our  let- 
ter?" 


C.    Body : 

(1)  arrangement 

(2)  margin 


She  has  the  children  discover  the 
position,  the  use  of  the  capitals,  and 
the  proper  punctuation.  The  teacher 
adds  the  salutation  to  the  letter  on 
the  board  and  the  children  copy  it* 

1 :  "Now  what  were  we  going  to 
invite  mother  to  do?  How  shall  we 
say  it?"  She  should  frave  the  chil- 
dren discover  the  place  to  begin  the 
body  of  the  letter. 

"Where  must  we  begin  the  second 
line?"  She  has  the  children  examine 
the  letters.  "Do  you  know  what  that 
space  is  called?    Look  in  your  book 


144 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


and  see  if  a  margin  is  left  on  each 
page.  Why  do  you  suppose  this  mar- 
gin is  left?"  The  teacher  writes  the 
entire  sentence  and  the  children 
copy. 


We  will  sing  for  you. 

We  will  recite  poems 
and  tell  stories. 

We  will  dramatize 
some  of  our  stories. 


"What  else  shall  we  say  to  mother  ? 
Don't  you  think  she  will  be  interested 
in  knowing  what  we  are  going  to  do? 
How  shall  we  say  this  ?"  The  teacher 
writes  and  the  children  copy.  "What 
else  shall  we  do?"  Each  sentence 
should  be  developed  in  a  similar  way. 


D.     Closing : 
"Your  son,  John." 

(1)  wording 

(2)  location 

(3)  capitals  and  punc- 
tuation. 


"How  shall  we  close  our  letter? 
Examine  the  letters  and  see  how  they 
are  closed."  The  teacher  continues 
until  each  point  is  developed  induct- 
ively. 


E.    The  address: 

(1)  location 

(2)  arrangement 

(3)  punctuation 


iSummary:  As  previously  stated, 
this  letter  would  be  the  work  of 
several  days.  Before  each  period  the 
part  of  letter  already  developed 
should  be  placed  on  the  board.  In 
beginning  each  succeeding  lesson  the 
teacher  should  have  a  brief  review 
on   the  points   previously   developed- 

The  correct  way  of  addressing  a 
letter  should  be  developed  inductive- 
ly, also  practically  every  other  point 
in  written  composition. 


Writing  additional 
letters. 


Application:   The  writing  of  oth- 
er letters  from  time  to  time. 


Language  145 

Second  or  third  grade 

I.  Topic:    A  Written  Story  or  Composition. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  develop  the  child's* 
initiative  and  to  train  him  in  proper  expression  and 
organization.  (2)  To  train  him  in  the  proper  written 
mechanics  of  a  composition. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  write  a  story  to  send  to 
his  grandmother.  (2)  To  arrange  properly  the  outline 
of  the  story.  (3)  To  express  himself  in  the  best  way. 
(4)  To  discover  the  proper  way  to  arrange  and  write 
the  story. 

IV.  Outline 

1.  Title 

a.  wording 

b.  location 

c.  capitals  and  punctuation 

2.  Outline  of  theme 

3.  Body 

a.  description 

(1)  wording 

(2)  arrangement 

b.  food 

c.  home 

d.  protection  from  enemies 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

This  story  is  based  on  a  previous  nature  study  lesson 
on  the  rabbit;  all  the  facts  were  fully  developed. 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

2  1   and  2 

1.     Title:  "What  have  we  been   studying   in 

our  nature  study  lesson?     Wouldn't 


146 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


The  Story  of  the  Rab- 
bit. 

a.  wording 

b.  location 

c.  capitals    and   punc- 
tuation. 


2.    Outline : 

a.  description 

b.  food 
c    home 

d.    protection  from  en- 
emies 


3.    Body : 

a.    description 

(1)  wording 

(2)  arrangement 


your  grandmother  be  pleased  if  you 
were  to  write  a  story  of  the  rabbit 
and  send  it  to  her  ?  What  is  the  first 
thing  we  find  in  a  story?  Look  in 
your  books  and  see."  The  teacher 
has  several  stories  examined  until 
the  children  are  convinced  that  the 
name  of  the  story  should  be  given 
first.  "What  shall  we  name  our  story? 
Where  shall  we  write  it?"  The  prop- 
er position,  capitals,  and  punctuation 
should  be  developed  inductively.  The 
teacher  writes  on  the  'board  and  the 
children  on  paper. 

Summary:  "What  is  the  first 
thing  we  write  in  a  story?"  Each 
point  covered  is  reviewed. 

"What  shall  we  tell  about  the  rab- 
bit? I  will  write  on  the  board  the 
things  you  suggest.  What  shall  we 
tell  first?  What  next?"  The  out- 
line is  rearranged.  The  teacher 
should  train  the  child  to  organize 
this  outline  properly  by  suggestions 
and  by  well-directed  questions.  She 
should  not  be  arbitrary  even  if  the 
organization  is  not  as  logical  as  de- 
sired, since  the  aim  is  to  develop  and 
train  the  child's  initiative  and  power 
of  organization. 

"How  shall  we  describe  the  rabbit? 
How  shall  we  say  that?"  She  con- 
tinues until  all  the  sentences  are 
placed  on  the  board.  These  should 
not  be  placed  on  the  part  of  the  board 
where  the  regular  composition  is  to 
be  written. 

"Let  us  read  our"  description.  What 


Language 


147 


sentence  should  come  first?"  The 
sentences  are  rearranged  as  in  the 
outline.  The  children  are  allowed  to 
discover  a  rule  for  the  margin  and 
one  for  the  indention  of  the  para- 
graph by'  examining  their  reading 
books. 

After  the  first  paragraph  is  placed 
on  the  board  the  children  copy  it. 
Each  paragraph  is  developed  in  a 
similar  way. 

All  letter  writing  and  written  com- 
position work  should  be  closely 
supervised  until  the  teacher  is  rea- 
sonably sure  that  the  child  will  not 
make  mistakes  in  his  work. 

If  original  work  is  given  too  early 
it  tends  to  establish  incorrect  habits 
of  form  and  of  spelling. 


Summing  up  all  points 
covered 


iSummary:  Throughout  the  lesson 
the  teacher  should  constantly  recall 
all  points  covered. 


The    writing   of    addi- 
tional stories. 


Application:    The  writing  of  oth- 
er stories  from  time  to  time. 


REFERENCES 


Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 

Cooley,  Language  in   the   Grades. 

Haliburton  and  Smith,  Teaching  Poetry  in  the  Grades 

Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 

Leiper,  Language  in  the  Elementary  Grades 

Wilson,  Motivation 


CHAPTER  XII 

LITERATURE 

AIM 

If  the  child  is  to  gain  in  language  power,  he  must  have 
a  conscious  ideal  or  standard  by  which  to  measure  his 
progress.  One  of  the  best  sources  for  these  ideals  is 
found  in  literature.  The  English  is  pure,  simple,  and 
elevating,  and  its  proper  use  will  enrich  the  child's  vocab- 
ulary, add  to  his  power  of  expression,  and  help  him 
form  correct  habits  of  speech. 

In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  source  of  language  ideals, 
a  genuine  love  and  an  appreciation  of  good  literature  will 
enrich  life  by  broadening  the  mind  and  the  character 
through  contact  with  the  noble  men  and  women  por- 
trayed. It  will  develop  and  broaden  the  child's  sym- 
pathies for  his  fellow  men,  fill  his  mind  with  uplifting 
thoughts,  develop  his  imagination,  and  furnish  ideals  of 
conduct.  Through  its  use  he  should  learn  to  love  and 
appreciate  nature  as  never  before. 

It  is  said  that  if  a  child  does  not  learn  to  love  good 
literature  before  the  age  of  ten,  the  chances  are  that  he 
will  never  acquire  this  taste.  If  this  is  true,  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  teacher  of  the  little  child,  to  bring  him  into 
daily  contact  with  as  much  appropriate  literature  as  pos- 
sible, inasmuch  as  love  of  good  literature  is  a  matter 
of  training  and  not  an  inborn  trait. 

148 


Literature  149 


The  primary  purpose  of  literature  is  to  give  joy.  This 
alone  is  a  justification  for  its  frequent  use  in  the  school- 
room, since  the  ideal  schoolroom  is  one  in  which  both 
teacher  and  pupil  find  much  joy.  The  use  of  the  story 
will  also  help  to  bring  about  a  closer  relation  between 
the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  as  the  child  is  instinctively 
drawn  closer  to  the  story  teller.  Not  only  does  the  story 
or  poem  give  joy  but  it  affords  opportunity  for  the  en- 
riching and  the  enlarging  of  the  child's  mental  and  moral 
life.  He  can  find  no  higher  source  for  moral  ideals 
than  in  the  good  old  fairy  tale  or  the  historical  tale. 

Two  other  important  functions  of  literature  are  the 
development  of  the  child's  imagination  and  the  mental 
training  which  the  study  of  literature  affords.  Even  the 
simplest  story  affords  such  training,  as  its  incidents  are 
logical  in  arrangement,  each  growing  out  of  the  pre- 
ceeding  one  and  necessitating  the  following  one.  These 
stories  are  found  to  contain  all  the  elements  of  good 
literature — they  are  simple  in  plot,  have  a  predominating 
action,  and  every  incident  leads  toward  the  climax. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  . 

In  the  rhymes  of  "Mother  Goose"  will  be  found  a  rich 
storehouse  of  material  for  the  mental  training  which 
literature  should  offer.  These  rhymes  meet  every  re- 
quirement for  good  literature  and  afford  a  broad  field  for 
the  development  of  the  child's  imagination.  The  rhythm 
is  irresistible,  the  incidents  are  intensely  interesting,  the 
consequences  are  just,  and  the  moral  tone  is  of  a  high 
type.  The  child  who  has  not  known  '"Mother  Goose" 
has  been  deprived  of  a  source  of  mental  development 
which  cannot  be  supplied  in  any  other  way.     Not  only  is 


150  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


this  true,  but  a  knowledge  of  Mother  Goose  is  essential 
to  a  complete  understanding  of  adult  literature  where 
frequent  allusions  will  be  found  to  these  characters. 

Good  English  is  born  of  familiarity,  therefore,  it  is 
essential  that  the  child  hear  as  much  good  English  as 
possible.  Literature  is  one  of  the  most  essential  factors 
in  this  program  since  it  affords  endless  opportunity  for 
bringing  him  into  daily  and  almost  hourly  contact  with 
those  who  have  something  to  say  and  who  say  it  in  the 
purest  and  simplest  English. 

In  choosing  literature  for  the  development  of  language 
power,  the  teacher  must  keep  in  mind  the  twofold  pur- 
pose; namely,  (1)  to  arouse  and  stimulate  thought,  and 
(2)  to  establish  habits  of  correctness,  forcefulness,  and 
fluency  in  the  expression  of  thought.  Any  selection 
which  does  not  measure  up  to  this  standard  should  be 
eliminated  from  the  language  course  of  study. 

I.     THE  STORY 

There  is  a  vast  amount  of  material  from  which  to 
choose  the  story,  and  the  teacher  is  often  puzzled  to 
know  just  what  selection  to  use.  Through  a  close  study 
of  those  which  especially  appeal  to  the  child,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  ones  which  he  likes  best  (1)  are  full  of 
action;  (2)  contain  simple  elements  used  in  a  realistic 
way;  and  (3)  contain  a  certain  amount  of  repetition.  If 
the  teacher  will  apply  this  three-fold  test,  she  will  seldom 
make  a  mistake  in  her  choice  of  stories. 

Among  the  classes  of  stories  which  the  child  likes  will 
be  found  the  fairy  story,  the  myth,  the  legend,  the  his- 
torical story,  the  nature  story,  the  Bible  story,  and  the 
nonsense  story. 


Literature  151 


1.  The  Fairy  Story.  The  fairy  story  has  a  special 
charm  for  a  young  child,  and  it  should  be  given  him  as 
his  natural  right.  It  stirs  and  develops  his  imagination, 
inspires  him  to  right  action,  and  develops  "his  literary 
taste.  Familiarity  with  the  fairy  story  is  necessary  to 
a  full  appreciation  of  the  frequent  allusions  in  adult 
literature. 

2.  The  Nature  Story.  If  the  nature  story  is  care- 
fully selected,  many  truths  may  be  taught  in  an  interest- 
ing form.  It  will  develop  a  closer  sympathy  with  the 
animal  kingdom  and  a  deeper  appreciation  of  the  beau- 
ties and  wonders  of  nature.  Through  the  nature  story 
the  child  may  be  taught  that  behind  nature  and  in  nature 
is  the  hand  of  God. 

3.  The  Historical  Story.  If  the  historical  story  is 
wisely  selected,  much  interesting  history  will  be  acquired, 
the  pride  and  love  for  one's  country  awakened,  and  a 
broader  sympathy  and  love  for  humanity  developed.  The 
stories  of  the  love,  devotion,  and  struggles  of  the  early 
pioneers  should  awaken  a  'desire  to  emulate  their 
example. 

4.  The  Biblical  Story.  In  the  Bible  will  be  found 
another  source  of  literature  that  may  be  used  in  arousing 
thought  and  establishing  language  ideals.  It  is  unsur- 
passed in  purity  of  style  and  in  loftiness  of  content. 
Through  the  Bible  stor}%  the  child  may  be  taught  the 
all-powerful  influence  of  God  in  the  development  of  the 
human  race. 

As  in  the  fairy  story,  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible  story 
is  necessary  to  a  full  appreciation  of  adult  literature. 

5.  The  Nonsensical  Stor{y.  The  value  of  the  funny 
story  lies  in  its  humor  and  its  power  to  awaken  laughter. 
A  hearty  laugh  will  do  much  to  clear  up  the  mental 


152  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

atmosphere,  and  take  away  the  tired,  discouraged  feel- 
ing which  is  too  often  a  natural  result  of  the  schoolroom 
procedure.  When  the  child  seems  tired  and  listless,  the 
teacher  should  try  the  effect  of  a  funny  story,  one  which 
will  give  him  the  opportunity  for  hearty  laughter. 

The  following  list  of  stories  meets  all  the  requirements 
for  those  suitable  for  language  work.  Many  equally  ap- 
propriate may  be  found  in  the  modern  school  readers, 
children's  magazines,  educational  magazines,  and  in 
books  of  stories  especially  prepared  for  the  teacher. 

First  Grade: 

Bellerophon  and  Pegasus 

Ulysses  and  the  Bag  of  Wind 

The  Three  Bears 

The  Three  Pigs 

The  Town  Musicians 

The  Elves  and  The  Shoemaker 

The  Ugly  Duckling 

The  Old  Woman  and  the  Pig 

The  Little  Red  Hen  and  the  Grain  of  Wheat 

The  Little  Fir  Tree 

The  Discontented  Pine  Tree 

The  Boy  and  the  Wolf 

The  Lion  and  the  Mouse 

Phaeton 

Another  Little  Red  Hen  Story 

How  Brother  Rabbit  Fooled  the  Whald 

and  the  Elephant 
Epaminondas 
Pig  Brother 
Raggylug 
Sleeping  Beauty 


Literature  153 


The  Lost  Sheep  (Bible) 
David  and  Goliath    (Bible) 
The  Birth  of  Christ  (Bible) 
Saint  Christopher 
George  Washington 
Wonder  Stories 
Stories  of  Animals 

Second  Grade: 

Clytie 

Pandora 

Prometheus 

Persephone 

Baucis  and  Philemon 

Snow  White 

Hansel  and  Grethel 

Beauty  and  the  Beast 

Cinderella 

Moses    (Bible) 

Daniel  (Bible,) 

Ruth  (Bible) 

Picciola 

Robert  E.  Lee 

Washington 

Columbus 

Third  Grade: 

Old  Greek  Stories 

Robinson  Crusoe 

Stories  of  Great  Musicians 

Little  Lame  Prince 

Child  of  Urbino  and  Randolph 

The  Wonderful  Lamp 


j  54  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Dog  of  Flanders 

Rip  Van  Winkle 

The  Cratchits'  First  Christmas  Dinner 

The  Constant  Tin  Soldier 

The  Darning  Needle 

Tit  for  Tat 

The  Fir  Tree 

The  Angel 

The  King  of  the  Golden  River 

Books  of  Stones 

The  Children's  Hour 

Books:  Bryant,  How  to  Tell  Stories,  Stories  to  Tell 
to  Children  (Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  New  York)  ;  Grimm's 
Fairy  Tales  (Macmillan,  New  York)  ;  Bailey,  For  the 
Children's  Hour  (Milton  Bradley,  Atlanta)  ;  Cooke, 
Nature  Myths  and  Stories  (A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago). 

II.    POEMS 

It  is  said  that  the  child  has  an  instinctive  love  for  the 
rhythm  of  the  poem,  and  that  if  the  adult  does  not  like 
poetry,  it  is  because  this  instinct  was  not  properly  devel- 
oped in  childhood.  If  this  is  true,  the  teacher  has  com- 
mitted a  grievous  wrong  against  the  child  if  she  does  not 
make  the  reading  and  reciting  of  poetry  a  regular  part 
of  his  school  life.  The  most  beautiful  and  inspiring 
thoughts  in  all  classic  literature  are  in  the  form  of  poetry. 
The  person  who  does  not  read  poetry  loses  much  that 
would  broaden  and  elevate  life  and  help  to  lift  him  *bove 
the  sordid  and  trivial.  Many  people  have  been  saved 
from  temptation  and  from  the  commonplace  by  having 
their  minds  stored  with  these  gems  of  literature. 

The  retentive  or  permanent  memory  is  at  its  best  in 


Literature  155 


childhood,  and  a  thing  thoroughly  memorized  in  this 
period  is  never  forgotten.  Advantage  should  be  taken  of 
this  opportunity  by  filling  the  child's  mind  with  the 
noblest  and  best  which  literature  affords. 

Aside  from  the  moral  and  intellectual  benefits  of  poetry, 
there  is  an  excellent  opportunity  for  developing  language 
power.  If  the  poetry  is  properly  used  it  will  arouse  and 
stimulate  the  child's  thought,  increase  his  vocabulary,  add 
to  his  phraseology,  and  help  him  in  forming  the  correct 
.habits  of  speech. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the 
poem.  It  should  be  simple  as  to  content,  easily  inter- 
preted, made  up  of  familiar  elements,  and  should  be  un- 
mistakable as  to  rhythm.  The  English  should  be  pure 
and  the  style  simple.  If  a  poem  is  adapted  to  a  certain 
season,  it  will  add  interest  and  meaning  to  teach  it  in 
the   appropriate  season. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  appropriate  poetry  for  the 
child  of  every  age.  Much  poetry  that  is  appropriate  to 
the  grade  and  to  the  season  will  be  found  in  the  modern 
readers,  children's  magazines,  educational  journals,  the 
Bible,  and  in  books  of  poetry  for  children.  The  follow- 
ing list  of  poems  is  suggestive : 


First  Grade- 


Time  to  Rise 

The  Wind 

The  Swing 

Sing  a  Song  of  Seasons 

Singing 

The  Cow 

Duty  of  Children 

Bed  in  Summer 


156  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

I  Love  You,  Mother 

Christmas  Song,  Fields 

The  Seed,  Kate  Brown 

The  Wonderful  Meadow  (one  stanza) 

Wordsworth 
The  Wind,  Rosetti 
I  Love  Little  Pussy 

Second  Grade: 

Autumn  Leaves 

October  Gave  a  Party 

The  Little  Kittens 

The  Sunbeam,  Paulson 

Come  Little  Leaves 

The  New  Moon 

Who  Stole  the  Bird's  Nest 

October's  Bright  Blue  Weather 

The  Squirrel's  Arithmetic 

Talking  in  Their  Sleep 

Wynken,  Blynken,  and  Nod 

Third  Grade: 

The  Children's  Hour 

Christmas 

The  Four  Winds 

Wonderful  WTorld 

Daisies 

Violets 

March 

Jack  in  the  Pulpit 

Sir  Robin 

1  Cor.  13:  1-13 

Nineteenth  Psalm 


Literature  157 


Books :  McMurry  &  Cook,  Songs  of  the  Tree-top  and 
Meadow  (Public-School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington, 
111.).  Love  joy,  Nature  in  Verse  (Silver  Burdette  Co., 
New  York).  Stevenson,  A  Child's  Garden  of  Verse  (A. 
Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago).  Field,  Love  Songs  of  Childhood 
(Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York). 

METHOD 

Literature  should  be  presented  and  developed  in  such 
a  way  as  to  arouse  the  child's  appreciation  and  to  stimu- 
late his  thought.  The  discussion  of  the  selection  should 
lead  him  first  of  all  to  form  a  clear  and  vivid  mental 
picture  of  the  scenes  portrayed.  This  should  be  followed 
by  questions  which  will  lead  him  to  analyze,  compare,  and 
offer  opinions  on  the  characters  or  the  events.  In  other 
words,  he  should  be  made  to  think.  Such  questions  as 
the  following  may  be  asked  :  "Why  do  you  like  this  story 
or  poem?  Which  character  or  part  do  you  like  best? 
Why?  Do  you  think  this  a  good  title  for  the  story  or 
poem  ?  What  would  you  like  to  call  it  ?  Let  us  see  how 
many  parts  there  are  to  our  story  or  poem." 

If  good  English  is  the  result  of  familiarity,  the  child 
should  have  every  opportunity  possible  to  hear  and  repro- 
duce good  English.  One  of  the  most  effective  ways  to 
enrich  his  vocabulary,  to  help  him  in  establishing  correct 
habits  of  speech,  and  in  developing  a  beautiful,  forceful, 
and  fluent  power  of  expression  is  through  the  reproduc- 
tion of  stories  and  the  reciting  of  poems. 

He  should  be  made  conscious  of  the  new  word,  the 
beautiful  expression,  or  the  correct  expression  which  the 
teacher  is  seeking  to  add  to  his  language  power.  He 
should  be  encouraged  to  use  these  in  his  daily  speech. 
Much  may  be  done  by  praising  the  child  who  makes  this 


158  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


effort.  Many  ludicrous  mistakes  will  be  made  in  these 
early  attempts,  but  if  the  teacher  perseveres,  the  child 
will  gradually  form  the  habit  of  expressing  his  thought 
in  fluent  and  beautiful  English. 

The  teacher's  attitude  toward  literature  is  of  great 
importance  since  it  is  not  possible  to  teach  literary  appre- 
ciation if  she  does  not  appreciate.  She  should  never 
attempt  to  teach  a  selection  which  she  does  not  like.  It 
is  possible  for  the  teacher  to  learn  to  appreciate  a  selec- 
tion if  she  will  make  a  close  study  of  it,  trying  to  discover 
the  author's  purpose  and  his  attitude  when  he  wrote  it. 
She  should  study  until  she  understands  its  style  and  the 
thoughts  which  it  portrays,  and  until  she  has  a  vivid  men- 
tal image  of  the  situation  depicted. 

I.    THE  STORY 

The  story  which  is  told  is  much  more  interesting  and 
effective  than  the  story  which  is  read.  The  relation 
between  the  narrator  and  the  audience  is  much  closer, 
since  she  is  able  to  look  into  the  faces  of  her  auditors  and 
adapt  the  story  to  their  changing  moods.  Then,  if  she 
has  made  the  story  her  own,  she  can  make  it  much  more 
vivid  and  forceful  by  a  freer  use  of  eyes,  voice,  and 
bodily  gestures  than  is  possible  to  do  when  hampered  by 
the  words  of  a  book.  In  other  words,  the  telling  is  much 
more  natural  and  spontaneous  than  the  reading. 

Story-telling  is  not  always  a  gift,  but  it  is  an  art  which 
may  be  acquired  through  careful  study  and  practice.  The 
first  step  for  the  teacher  in  learning  to  tell  a  story  is  to 
read  and  study  it  until  she  feels  the  emotion  of  it  and  has 
a  genuine  appreciation  of  it.  Second,  she  must  know  her 
story  thoroughly.  She  should  think  of  it  and  picture  the 
events  until  it  seems  to  have  been  a  personal  experience. 


Literature  159 


The  student  has  only  to  recall  her  joy  in  listening  to  the 
story  which  begins,  "When  I  was  a  little  girl,"  to  realize 
the  force  of  a  story  that  is  a  personal  experience.  It  has 
a  charm  and  fascination  that  no  other  tale  has,  which  is 
due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  it  is  imaged  in  the  narrator's 
mind  as  an  actual,  vivid  picture,  and  as  she  tells  it  she  is 
again  participating  in  the  event  which  enables  her  to 
paint  a  realistic  word-picture.  If  the  teacher  is  to  tell  a 
story  well,  it  must  partake  of  the  elements  of  a  personal 
experience.  However,  the  story  should  not  be  memorized, 
except  where  a  certain  phrasing  is  especially  beautiful, 
or  where  it  seems  best  to  preserve  a  certain  phraseology 
of  conversation,  as  in  the  story  of  the  "Three  Bears." 
In  general  the  language  should  be  the  teacher's  own. 

When  telling  a  story  the  teacher  should  stand  where 
she  can  look  into  the  face  of  each  child.  This  will  allow 
her  to  adapt  her  tone  and  gesture  to  the  changing  expres- 
sions of  the  listeners. 

The  story  should  be  told  simply,  directly,  dramatically, 
joyfully,  and  enthusiastically.  When  the  audience  is 
made  up  of  young  children,  it  should  be  told  slowly 
and  impressively.  The  events  should  not  be  told  hur- 
riedly, but  the  child's  imagination  should  be  given  op- 
portunity to  leap  forward  and  supply  what  is  about  to 
happen.  His  mind  does  not  go  quickly  from  one  thing 
to  another,  and  if  the  story  is  told  rapidly  half  the  joy 
of  listening  is  lost,  for  not  only  does  he  not  get  a  clear 
picture  of  the  event  but  his  imagination  is  not  given 
proper  scope  for  activity. 

When  telling  a  story  it  should  not  be  interrupted  to 
correct  a  disorderly  child.  If  he  is  not  listening  he 
should  be  made  to  listen  by  the  force  of  the  story.  It 
should  be  made  so  dramatic  and  interesting  that  he  will 


160  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

listen  in  spite  of  himself.  There  should  be  an  exception 
to  this  rule  in  the  event  that  a  child  is  making  it  im- 
possible for  others  to  listen.  As  a  rule,  an  effective 
punishment  will  be  to  take  from  him  the  privilege  of 
listening  to  the  story. 

A  story  should  not  be  spoiled  by  over  analysis,  but 
only  enough  discussion  to  help  the  child  see  the  beauty 
and  to  enter  into  the  feeling  of  it.  A  personal  appli- 
cation of  the  moral  of  a  story  should  never  be  made 
since  this  will  often  spoil  the  enjoyment  of  it.  A  well 
directed  question  will  help  him  unconsciously  to  take 
the  lesson  to  himself.  By  questions  and  suggestions  he 
should  be  trained  to  compare  the  characters  in  the  sto- 
ries and  decide  whether  the  events  are  justified  or  not. 
He  should  then  be  left  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 
It  is  good  training  to  read  a  story  to  the  child  and  then 
allow  him  to  supply  a  title,  giving  reasons  for  his 
choice. 

Reproduction.  As  a  basis  for  the  development  of 
language  power,  not  only  should  the  child  listen  to  sto- 
ries but  he  should  be  trained  to  reproduce  them.  He 
should  not  be  asked  to  reproduce  a  story  until  he  is  per- 
fectly familiar  with  it,  inasmuch  as  this  is  one  of  the 
essentials  for  good  story-telling. 

Unless  the  story  is  very  short,  several  children  may 
take  part  in  the  reproduction.  For  instance,  "Mary  may 
tell  us  about  The  Home  of  the  Three  Bears.  Sam  may 
tell  us  about  The  Visit  of  Goldilocks!'  This  method  of 
telling  is  a  training  in  systematic  thinking  and  organiza- 
tion. 

The  child  should  be  allowed  to  tell  the  story  in  his 
own  words  provided  he  uses  a  correct  expression.  Any 
effort  to  use  the  beautiful  phrases  of  the  story  should 


Literature  161 


be  praised  not  only  in  the  reproduction  but  in  ordinary 
conversation. 

There  should  be  frequent  reproduction  of  old  stories. 
It  is  suggested  that  each  child  be  allowed  to  have  cer- 
tain stories  as  his  personal  property,  the  one  being 
selected  which  he  can  best  reproduce. 

Dramatization.  .  Where  a  story  is  full  of  action  the 
child  will  get  considerable  pleasure  and  profit  through 
its  dramatization.  Not  only  will  it  make  the  story  more 
real  to  him  but  it  will  develop  his  language  power  by 
the  expression  of  his  thought  in  action  and  word.  It 
will  help  to  form  the  correct  habit  of  speech  as  he 
must  use  the  correct  phrasing  in  the  conversational 
parts/    For  instance,  "Who  has  been  lying  on  my  bed?"' 

Dramatization  is  a  basis  also  for  realistic  reading. 
Through  it  the  child  enters  into  the  feelings  of  the 
characters  more  freely  than  is  possible  in  any  ordinary 
reading  recitation.  Before  the  dramatization  he  must 
be  perfectly  familiar  with  the  events  in  the  story,  as  he 
cannot  successfully  reproduce  that  with  which  he  is  not 
familiar. 

If  properly  conducted,  dramatization  develops  the 
child's  initiative  and  judgment,  since  he  must  improvise 
stage  scenery' out  of  the  ordinary  schoolroom  equipment. 
Then  he  must  help  decide  on  the  children  best  suited  to 
the  different  parts,  where  each  shall  stand,  and  the  other 
things  that  go  to  make  up  a  play. 

As  the  purpose  of  dramatization  is  the  benefit  to  the 
child,  and  not  to  give  a  finished  product,  it  should  be 
conducted  in  such  a  way  that  all  the  children  will  have 
a  part  at  some  time  and  in  some  story.  As  in  the  re- 
production, old  stories  should  be  dramatized  often  and 
each  child  allowed  to  claim  certain  parts  as  his  own. 


162  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Developing  a  Story.  Another  excellent  plan  for  the 
use  of  the  story  to  stimulate  and  develop  thought  is 
given  in  "The  Question  as  a  Factor  in  Teaching"  by 
Hall.  A  story  which  is  interesting,  natural,  reasonable, 
and  logical  is  selected.  The  teacher  begins  the  story  and 
then  pauses  at  a  certain  point  and  by  thought-compelling 
questions  stimulates  the  child's  mind  to  activity  by  al- 
lowing him  to  give  his  ideas  as  to  what  happens  next. 

II.    POEMS 

It  is  not  enough  to  read  and  recite  poems  to  the 
child,  but  if  he  is  to  .reap  the  greatest  benefit  many  of 
the  poems  must  be  thoroughly  discussed  and  then  com- 
mitted to  memory.  One  or  two  poems  should  be  mem- 
orized each  month,  with  frequent  review  of  those  al- 
ready memorized. 

Psychology  teaches  that  the  ability  to  recall  depends, 
primarily,  upon  three  factors,  (1)  native  power  of  re- 
tention, (2)  the  number  of  associations,  and  (3)  the 
systematic  organization  of  these  associations.  The  first 
factor  is  one"  over  which  the  teacher  has  no  control, 
consequently  it  will  be  eliminated  from  this  discussion. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  a  factor  which  she  must  take  into 
consideration  in  dealing  with  individual  cases. 

Memory  work  is  based  upon  a  clear  understanding 
of  the  thing  to  be  memorized,  followed  by  a  systematic 
association  of  ideas  gained  through  careful  thinking. 
This  clear  understanding  should  come  through  hearing 
the  poem  read  a  number  of  times  by  the  teacher,  the 
attention,  being  carefully  directed  toward  some  special 
point  before  each  reading.  The  poem  is  then  analyzed 
anto  its  main  thought  groups  without  reference  to  lines, 


Literature  163 


or  stanzas,  and  these  are  discussed  as  to  their  meaning 
and  their  relation  one  to  the  other.  The  main  thought 
of  the  poem  is  then  stated,  if  possible,  in  the  words  of 
the  writer.  This  may  be  followed  by  a  further  study 
of  the  thought  groups  ending  in  a  statement  of  these 
thoughts  in  the  words  of  the  writer.  The  relation  of 
these  minor  thoughts  to  each  other  and  to  the  whole 
thought  should  be  constantly  brought  out.    f 

If  memorizing  were  carried  out  in  this  way  it  would 
cease  to  be  drudgery,  since  the  poem  is  usually  mem- 
orized through  this  careful  association  of  ideas. 

Experiment  has  also  revealed  that  the  "whole  method" 
of  memorizing  is  by  far  the  most  economical.  With 
the  small  child,  it  would  seem  that  the  combination  of 
the  whole  and  the  part  method  would  prove  the  most 
satisfactory. 

Library.  When  the  child  has  been  taught  to  love 
good  literature,  the  teacher's  task  is  only  partly  finished. 
She  should  encourage  him  to  read,  and  to  read  only  the 
best.  If  he  is  to  have  access  to  this  type  of  reading, 
it  will  often  be  necessary  to  have  a  well-selected  library 
in  the  school.  Too  often  the  home  from  which  the 
child  comes  is  barren  of  any  reading  matter.  When  the 
reading  habit  has  been  established  provision  should  be 
made  by  which  the  child  may  secure  proper  reading 
matter. 

Original  Work.  When  the  teacher  has  successfully 
used  literature  in  the  development  of  the  language 
power,  she  may,  by  skillful  handling,  train  the  child  to 
write  original  poems  and  stories.  This  should  first  take 
the  form  of  a  class  exercise,  and  later  the  pupils  should 
work  individually. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

LITERATURE   (Continued) 

LESSON  PLANS 

The  recitation  in  literature  usually  begins  with  the 
appreciation  lesson,  develops  into  the  study  lesson,  then 
into  the  habit  forming  or  drill  lesson,  and  later  into  the 
review  lesson. 

The  appreciation  lesson  really  forms  one  step  in  drill 
lesson,  that  is,  the  giving  of  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  response,  and  will  not  be  discussed  as  a  separate 
type.  The  study  and  the  drill  lesson  will  consist  of  (1) 
the  motive,  (2)  a  clear  idea  of  the  desired  response, 
(3)  attentive  repetition,  (4)  no  exception,  (5)  reviews, 
and  (6)  application. 

1.  Teacher's  Motive.  The  teacher's  general  motive 
in  the  teaching  of  literature  is  to  arouse  and  stimulate 
thought,  to  develop  an  efficient  language  power,  and  to 
establish  the  habit  of  reading  the  best  literature.  The 
subject-matter  for  any  lesson  should  be  carefully  se- 
lected and  closely  studied  by  the  teacher  with  this  gen- 
eral motive  in  mind.  After  this  study  she  should  care- 
fully scrutinize  it  with  the  following  questions  in  mind: 

"Why  am  I  giving  this  special  subject-matter?  Is  it 
to  arouse  and  stimulate  thought;  develop  the  power  for 
clear,  systematic  thinking ;  to  train  in  the  ability  to  think 
and  to  talk  while  standing;  to  develop  literary  appre- 
ciation; to  establish  correct  habits  of  expression;  or  to 

164 


Literature  165 


train  in  the  use  of  clear,  fluent,  and  forceful  English? 
Just  what  do  I  expect  the  child  to  gain  through  the  use 
of  this  subject-matter?"  More  than  one  of  these  aims 
may  enter  into  any  lesson,  but  the  teacher  should  have  a 
clear-cut  conception  of  what  she  expects  the  child  to 
gain  before  beginning  to  plan  the  class  procedure. 

It  is  through  the  class  procedure  that  the  child's  inter- 
est is  secured,  that  he  is  made  conscious  of  a  motive,  and 
that  the  teacher  accomplishes  her  aim.  This  part  of  the 
plan  will  require  very  careful  preparation.  She  must 
consider  how  she  is  to  interest  the  child,  how  to  lead  him 
to  want  to  accomplish  the  task  in  hand,  what  question  she 
shall  ask,  what  suggestions  she  shall  make,  how  she  shall 
help  the  memory  or  habit- forming  process  by  as  many 
associations  as  possible,  and  how  she  shall  hold  his  atten- 
tion and  interest  while  the  necessary  repetition  is  going 
on. 

2.  Child's  Motive.  If  the  interest  and  attention 
of  the  child  are  to  be  of  the  best  type,  he  must  have  a 
motive  for  doing  the  work.  In  other  words,  'he  must 
enjoy  it,  see  the  use  of  it,  or  feel  that  he  is  getting  some- 
thing out  of  it.  If  it  is  a  poem  which  he  is  to  memorize 
he  should  feel  that  he  is  learning  it  to  recite  at  some 
definite  time ;  or  if  it  is  a  story  he  should  learn  to  repro- 
duce it  for  some  special  occasion. 

3.  A  Clear  Idea  of  the  Response.  This  clear  idea 
is  gained  through  the  reading  of  the  poem  or  story  by  the 
teacher  and  through  questions. 

4.  Attentive  Repetition.  The  second  step,  or  ac- 
quiring the  clear  idea  of  the  response,  offers  opportunity 
for  attentive  repetition.  If  this  is  not  sufficient  the 
teacher  should  use  devices  and  variation  in  the  necessary 
repetition  to  insure  the  full  attention. 


166  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


5.  No  Exception.  If  the  child  is  to  form  the  habit 
of  repeating  the  words  of  the  poem  correctly  or  of  using 
correct  expressions  in  the  reproduction  of  a  story,  each 
repetition  should  be  exact.  The  teacher  should  so  plan 
that  no  error  is  likely  to  occur. 

6.  Review.  If  a  poem  or  story  is  to  become  a 
permanent  part  of  the  child's  mental  equipment,  the 
teacher  should  at  first  review  it  frequently,  then  gradu- 
ally lengthen  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  reviews. 

7.  Application.  In  so  far  as  possible,  the  child 
should  be  given  opportunity  to  make  use  of  the  stories 
and  poems  acquired  through  the  language  work.  He  may 
go  to  another  room  and  recite  the  poem  or  tell  the  story, 
or  the  parents  and  friends  may  be  invited  to  school  and 
the  child  allowed  to  recite  a  poem  or  tell  a  story.  He 
should  be  encouraged  to  tell  the  story  to  his  brothers, 
sisters,  father,  mother,  and  other  relatives  and  friends. 
After  all,  it  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  how  much  the 
child  learns  as  what  use  he  makes  of  what  he  has  learned. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 

These  lessons  are  planned  as  units  and  in  some  cases 
no  indication  is  made  as  to  where  the  lessons  will  divide, 
inasmuch  as  this  is  a  matter  which  should  be  governed 
by  the  amount  of  time  given  to  a  lesson  period  and  to  the 
ability  of  the  class.  The  connection  links  between  the 
lessons  should  be  supplied  by  a  brief  review  of  the  pre- 
vious day's  work. 

I.  Topic:  Story  of  "The  Three  Bears."  Primarily 
a  first-grade  story.  However,  the  same  general  plan  may 
be  followed  in  a  second  or  third  grade. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:   (1)  To  create  a  love  for  good 


Literature  167 


literature.  (2)  To  develop  the  child's  initiative  and  his 
power  for  expression.  (3)  To  increase  his  language 
power:  (a)  by  arousing  and  stimulating  thought,  (b) 
by  adding  huge,  wee,  and  frightened  to  his  vocabulary, 
(c)  by  establishing  the  correct  use  of  came,  sat,  lying, 
and  the  habit  of  adding  the  final  g  in  tasting,  walking, 
sitting,  and  lying.  (4)  To  teach  him  proper  organization 
in  thinking.  (5)  To  teach  him  to  think  and  to  talk  while 
standing. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  enjoy  the  story.  (2)  To 
make  pictorial  drawings  of  parts  of  the  story.  (3)  To 
represent  parts  of  the  story  in  clay.  (4)  To  answer  the 
teacher's  questions  correctly.  (5)  To  gain  practice  in 
the  telling  of  the  story  so  that  he  may  tell  it  to  his  mother. 
(6)  To  tell  certain  parts  of  the  story  in  such  a  way  that 
his  classmates  will  imagine  they  see  the  different  char- 
acters as  he  talks.     (7)  To  dramatize  the  story. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Once  upon  a  time  there  were  three  bears.  One  was  a 
great  huge  bear.  One  was  a  middle-sized  bear.  The 
other  was  a  wee  baby  bear. 

These  three  bears  lived  in  a  house  in  the  woods.  The 
great  huge  bear  had  a  great  huge  bowl  to  eat  out  of,  a 
great  huge  chair  to  sit  in,  and  a  great  huge  bed  to  sleep 
in.  The  middle-sized  bear  had  a  middle-sized  bowl  to 
eat  out  of,  a  middle-sized  chair  to  sit  in,  and  a  middle- 
sized  bed  to  sleep  in.  The  wee  baby  bear  had  a  wee 
bowl,  a  wee  chair,  and  a  wee  bed. 

One  day  when  the  bears  started  to  eat  their  soup,  they 
found  it  too  hot.  So  they  decided  to  go  walking  while 
it  cooled.  While  they  were  gone  a  little  girl  named 
Goldilocks  came  by.  She  had  never  seen  this  house  be- 
fore, and  she  wanted  very  much  to  know  who  lived  here. 


168  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


She  went  to  the  door  and  knocked  and  when  no  one  came 
she  decided  to  go  in.  She  saw  the  three  bowls  of  soup 
and  as  she  was  very  hungry  she  tasted  the  soup  in  the 
great  huge  bowl,  but  it  was  too  hot.  She  tasted  the  soup 
in  the  middle-sized  bowl,  but  this  was  too  cold.  Then 
she  tasted  the  soup  in  the  wee  bowl  and  as  this  was  just 
right  she  ate  it  all  up. 

Then  she  saw  the  three  chairs  and  decided  to  rest  a 
while.  She  sat  down  in  the  great  huge  chair  but  it  was 
too  high.  She  sat  down  in  the  middle-sized  chair,  but  it 
was  too  hard.  Then  she  sat  down  in  the  wee  chair  and 
it  was  just  right,  but  she  sat  there  so  long  she  broke  it. 

Then  Goldilocks  went  upstairs  where  she  saw  the 
three  beds.  As  she  was  sleepy  she  decided  to  lie  down 
and  take  a  nap.  She  lay  down  on  the  great  huge  bed, 
but  it  was  too  high  at  the  head.  She  lay  down  on  the 
middle-sized  bed  but  it  was  too  high  at  the  foot.  Then 
she  lay  down  on  the  wee  bed  and  it  was  just  right.  Be 
fore  Goldilocks  knew  what  had  happened,  she  was  sound 
asleep. 

About  this  time  the  three  bears  came  home.  When 
they  started  to  eat  their  soup  the  great  huge  bear  said  in 
a  great  huge  voice,  "Some  one  has  been  tasting  my 
soup."  The  middle-sized  bear  said  in  a  middle-sized 
voice,  "Some  one  has  been  tasting  my  soup."  The  wee 
bear  said  in  a  wee  voice,  "Some  one  has  been  tasting  my 
soup  and  it  is  all  gone." 

Then  they  looked  at  their  chairs  and  the  great  huge 
bear  said  in  a  great  huge  voice,  "Some  one  has  been  sit- 
ting in  my  chair."  The  middle-sized  bear  said  in  a  mid- 
dle-sized voice,  "Some  one  has  been  sitting  in  my  chair." 
The  wee  bear  said  in  a  wee  voice,  "Some  one  has  been 
sitting  in  my  chair  and  it  is  broken." 


Literature 


169 


The  three  bears  ran  upstairs  to  look  at  their  beds.  The 
great  huge  bear  said  in  a  great  huge  voice,  "Some  one 
has  been  lying  on  my  bed."  The  middle-sized  bear  said 
in  a  middle-sized  voice,  "Some  one  has  been  lying  on 
my  bed."  The  wee  bear  said  in  a  wee  voice,  "Some  one 
has  been  lying  on  my  bed  and  here  she  is  fast  asleep." 

Just  then  Goldilocks  opened  her  eyes.  She  was  so 
frightened  when  she  saw  the  tjhree  bears  that  she  ran 
down  the  stairs  and  out  of  the  house.  She  did  not  stop 
running  until  she  reached  home  and  she  never,  never 
bothered  the  three  bears  again. 


Subject-Matter 


Story  of 
Bears." 


The  Three 


Pictures : 
bears  (use  pattern) 
house 
bowls 
chair 
beds 

Goldilocks 
(use  pattern) 


Procedure 

First  Day 

"Did  you  ever  see  a  bear?  Tell 
me  about  it.  Would  you  like  to  hear 
a  story  about  three  bears?"  The 
teacher  tells  the  story.  "Would  you 
like  to  have  been  in  Goldilock's  place? 
Why  (or  why  not)  ?" 

Second  Day 

"Did  you  enjoy  the  story  of  the 
Three  Bears?  How  would  you  like 
to  tell  the  story  by  pictures?  Let 
me  tell  it  again  and  then  you  tell 
me  when  I  finish  what  we  can  draw." 
She  tells  the  story.  "What  can  we 
draw?"  The  list  of  things  sug- 
gested is  placed  on  the  board.  "Now 
if  our  pictures  are  to  tell  the  story 
how  must  we  arrange  them?  Which 
should  come  first?  Second?"  It  may 
foe  necessary  to  review  the  story  in 
order  to  secure  a  proper  arrange- 
ment.    The  children  are  now  ready 


170 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


house 

bears 

bowls 

chairs 

beds 

Goldilocks 


to  draw  the  pictures.  The  teacher 
should  accept  even  the  most  crude 
drawing.  "What  does  it  mean  by 
the  great  huge  bear?  What  size 
should  we  make  him?"  The  sizes  of 
other  bears,  the  bowls,  chairs,  and 
beds  are  developed  in  the  same  way. 
"Suppose  you  draw  the  pictures  for 
your  mother  or  your  little  brothers 
and  sisters  when  you  go  home." 

Third  Day 

"How  did  we  tell  the  story  of  the 
'Three  Bears'  yesterday?  Did  you 
draw  any  pictures  for  your  mother, 
brothers,  or  sisters?  How  would  you 
like  to  tell  it  in  another  way?  Let 
us  tell  it  with  clay.  Let  me  tell  it 
again  and  then  be  ready  to  tell  the 
different  things  we  can  mold."  The 
teacher  tells  the  story  and  proceeds 
to  list  of  articles  and  the  molding 
of  the  objects  as  on  the  previous  day. 
"What  can  you  tell  your  mother 
about  the  story  tonight?" 


came 


Fourth  to  Seventh  Days 

"What  did  you  tell  your  mother 
about  the  'Three  Bears?'  Who  came 
by  the  Three  Bears"  house?"  She 
allows  two  or  three  children  to  re- 
peat the  sentence  "Goldilocks  came 
by  the  house  of  the  'Three  Bears'." 
"Who  came  by  your  house  yester- 
day? Who  came  to  school  with 
you?"  She  continues  the  questions 
until  each  child  has  used  came  in  a 
sentence. 


Literature 


171 


huge 


frightened 
wee 


tasting 


walking 
sat 

sitting 
lying 


"What  size  was  the  big  bear?  Have 
you  ever  seen  anything  that  was  huge 
in  size?  Tell  me  what  you  have 
seen."'  The  child  answers  by  a  sen- 
tence containing  huge.  "See  if  you 
can  use  this  word  when  you  go 
home." 

Frightened  and'  wee  are  developed 
in  the  same  way. 

"What  did  the  great  huge  bear  say 
when  he  found  some  one  had  been 
tasting  his  soup?"  Two  or  three  chil- 
dren are  allowed  to  tell.  The  teacher 
should  carefully  note  that  the  final  g 
is  distinctly  enunciated,  "What  did 
the  middle-sized  bear  say?"  She 
should  continue  until  each  child  has 
had  an  opportunity '  to  use  tasting. 
Walking,  sat,  sitting,  and  lying  are 
developed  in  a  similar  way. 


2. 


Description 
bears 


Description 
bears'  home 


of     the 


of     the 


Eighth  Day 

"Do  you  like  to  hear  stories?  I 
wonder  if  you  would  like  to  be  able 
to  tell  the  story  of  the  Three  Bears'  ? 
How  do  we  learn  to  do  things  well  ? 
Yes,  by  practice.  Let  us  practice  tell- 
ing this  story  and  when  we  can  tell 
it  well  we  will  invite  mother  to  come 
to  hear  us  tell  it. 

"John  may  tell  the  part  that  de- 
scribes the  bears.  Tell  it  so  we  shall 
imagine  we  see  the  three  bears." 
Close  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  correctness  of  the  language. 

"Mary  may  tell  the  part  that  de- 
scribes the  home  of  the  bears.     Try 


172  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

to  make  us  imagine  that  we  see  this 
home." 

3.  Visit  of  Goldilocks  "Sam    may    tell    about    Goldilocks' 

visit. 

4.  Return  of  the  three  "Helen  m^  tdl   about  the  return 

of  the  three  bears." 

"Practice  telling  this  story  to  your 

little  brothers  and  sisters." 


bears 


Ninth  and  Tenth  Days 
Reproduction  as  on  the  eighth  day. 

Eleventh  Day 

"How  would  you  like  to  dramatize 
this  story  ?  What  characters  shall  we 
need?  I  will  write  the  names  of  the 
characters  on  the  board.  Whom  shall 
we  select  for  the  great  huge  bear? 
Why  do  you  think  Harley  will  make 
a  nice  big  bear?"  The  other  char- 
acters are  selected  in  the  same  way. 
"What  things  shall  we  need?  I  will 
write  the  list  on  the  board.  Where 
shall  we  have  the  home  of  the  bears  ? 
What  shall  we  use  for  the  bowls?" 
She  should  continue  until  all  the  stage 
furniture  is  selected-  .The  children 
should  be  led  to  see  the  necessity  for 
variety  in  the  sizes  of  the  bowls, 
chairs,  and  beds,  after  which  the  story 
is  dramatized.  Especial  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  language  used. 
If  the  teacher  feels  that  her  aim  has 
not  been  fully  accomplished,  she  may 
continue  the  reproduction  and  dram- 
atization of  the  story  for  several  more 
days. 

There  should  be  frequent  review 
in  the  reproduction  and  in  the  dram- 
atization of  stories. 


Literature  173 


First,  second,  or  third  grade 

I.  Topic:  Poem,  "The  Two  Kittens/' 

II.  Teacher's  Motive'.  (1)  To  arouse  and  stimulate 
thought.  (2)  To  teach  a  love  for  good  literature.  (3) 
To  train  in  the  use  of  good  English,  with  special  atten- 
tion to  begin,  begun,  and  the  choice  of  forceful  words 
in  expressing  thought.  (4)  To  train  the  child  to  clear, 
systematic  thinking  by  finding  thought  groups  in  the 
poem.  (5)  To  train  him  to  express  himself  systemat- 
ically, fluently,  and  beautifully. 

III.  Outline : 

1.  The  cause  of  the  quarrel 

2.  The  quarrel 

3.  The  punishment 

4.  The  lesson 

IV.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  listen  to  a  poem  about 
two  kittens.  (2)  To  discover  answers  to  certain  ques- 
tions asked  by  the  teacher.  (3)  To  answer  the  questions 
by  repeating  the  exact  words  of  the  poem.  (4)  To  dis- 
cover the  thought  groups  in  the  poem  and  the  best  way 
of  wording  these  topics.  (5)  To  discover  the  mental 
pictures  and  to  tell  the  story  of  the  poem.  (6)  To  be 
able  to  recite  the  poem  to  his  mother. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 

1 

Recall  of  experience  with  kittens. 

Procedure 
1 
Preparation:  "Do  you 

have  a  kitten  ?   Have  any 

of  you  two  kittens?    Did 

you  ever  see  two  kittens 

have   a   quarrel?    What 

174 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Two  little  kittens,  one  stormy  night, 
Began  to  quarrel  and  then  to  fight; 
One  had  a  mouse,  the  other  had  none, 
And  that  was  the  way  the  trouble 
begun. 

"I'll  have  that  mouse,"  said  the  bigger 

cat. 
"You'll  have  that  mouse?    We'll  see 

about  that." 
"I    will   have  that  mouse,"   said   the 

elder  one. 
"You  won't  have  that  mouse,"   said 

the  little  one. 

I    told   you   before    'twas    a    stormy 

night 
When    these    little   kittens   began   to 

fight; 
The  old  woman  seized  her  sweeping 

broom, 
And  swept  the  two  kittens  right  out 

of  the  room. 

The  ground  was  covered  with  frost 
and  snow, 

And  the  two  little  kittens  had  no- 
where to  go; 

So  they  laid  them  down  on  the  mat 
at  the  door, 

While  the  angry  old  woman  was 
sweeping  the  floor. 


was  it  about?  What  do 
you  think  would  cause  a 
quarrel  between  two  kit- 
tens more  quickly  than 
anything  else?" 

2 

Presentation:  "I  have 
a  poem  here  about  a 
quarrel  between  two  kit- 
tens- See  what  this  quar- 
rel was  about."  The 
teacher  reads  the  poem. 

"How  did  you  like  it? 
What  was  the  quarrel 
about  ?  What  happened 
to  the  "kittens?"  If  the 
children  cannot  answer, 
she  should  re-read  the 
poem.  "What  kind  of 
weather  was  it?"  If  it 
is  necessary  the  poem  is 
re-read.  "What  time  of 
year  was  it?  Listen  as 
I  re-read  it  and  see  if 
you  can  find  out."  She 
re-reads  the  poem.  "Did 
it  tell  in  more  than  one 
place?  Listen  while  I 
read  it  again  and  see  if 
you  can  repeat  the  parts 
where  it  tells  about  the 
time  of  year."  The  poem 
is  re-read.  "Who  can 
repeat  the  exact  words 
in  one  part?  Who  can 
repeat  the  exact  words 
in  the  other?  How  did 
the     old     woman     feel? 


Literature 


175 


And  then  they  crept  in  as  quiet  as 
mice, 

All  wet  with  snow,  and  as  cold  as 
ice; 

For  they  round  it  was  better,  that 
stormy  night, 

To  lie  down  and  sleep,  than  to  quar- 
rel and  fight. 


1.    The  cause  of  the  quarrel. 


How  do  you  know?  Lis- 
ten while  I  read  and  see 
if  you  can  repeat  the  ex- 
act words  that  tell?"  The 
teacher  re-reads  the 
poem.  "What  was  the 
cause  of  the  quarrel? 
Which  stanza  tells  that? 
Let  me  read  the  first 
stanza  and  see  if  it  tells 
the  cause."  She  reads 
the  first  stanza.  "What 
is  it  about?  I  will  write 
The  cause  of  the  quarrel 
on  the  board. 


2.    The  quarrel 


3.    The  punishment 


The   lesson 

learned 


they 


"Let  me  read  the  second  stanza  to 
see  what  it  is  about."  She  reads  the 
second  stanza.  "What  was  it  about? 
Let  us  say  it  in  two  words.  What 
shall  we  say?  I  will  write  The  quar- 
rel just  under  The  cause  of  the  quar- 
rel. 

"I  will  read  the  third  and  fourth 
stanzas  and  then  I  want  you  to  tell 
me  what  they  are  about."  She  reads 
these  stanzas.  "What  did  they  tell 
about?  If  you  were  to  quarrel  like 
that  what  would  mother  be  likely  to 
do  to  you?  Yes,  she  would  punish 
you.  How  did  the  old  woman  pun- 
ish the  two  kittens?  Was  that  all 
of  the  punishment?  Th'en  what  shall 
we  call  this  part?"  This  topic,  The 
punishment,  is  written  on  the  board. 

"What  lesson  did  the  kittens  learn? 
Let  me  read  the  last  stanza,  then 
be  ready  to  tell  me  what  it  is  about. 
How  shall  we  say  that?"    The  topic, 


176 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


Mental  pictures 


Story  of  poem 


The  lesson  they  learned  is  placed  on 
the  board. 

"How  many  pictures  does  this  poem 
make  you  see?  Let  me  read  the 
first  stanza  and  then  tell  me  what 
the  pictures  are."  The  teacher  reads 
each  stanza  and  has  the  children  de- 
scribe the  mental  pictures. 

"Who  can  tell  the  story  of  the 
poem?  What  is  the  first  thing  it 
tells?  The  next?"  She  continues 
by  referring  to  the  outline,  until  each 
topic  is  given.  "Who  is  ready  to 
tell  the  story  ?  Isn't  the  story  beauti- 
fully told  in  this  poem?  Wouldn't 
you  like  to  tell  it  in  this  way?  Then 
we  will  invite  mother  to  come  and 
hear  us  say  it.  What  did  the  first 
stanza  tell?  Now  let  us  see  if  we 
can  say  it  just  as  it  is  in  the  poem?" 
It  is  more  than  probable  that  the 
children  will  have  memorized  the  ex- 
act wording  by  this  time;  if  not  the 
teacher  may,  by  skilled  questions  help 
them  to  get  the  exact  wording. 

"Who  will  repeat  the  stanza  that 
tells  about  the  cause  of  the  quarrel? 
Now  I  will  repeat  the  remainder  so 
we  shall  have  the  entire  story.  What 
is  the  second  stanza  about?  Let  us 
see  if  we  can  tell  about  the  quarrel 
in  the  exact  words  of  the  poem." 
She  continues  until  the  entire  poem 
is  memorized,  referring  constantly  to 
the  whole  poem. 

The  poem  should  be  reviewed  fre- 
quently. The  attention  should  be 
called  to  the  use  of  began  and  be- 
gun,  followed  by  their  use  in  games 
and  exercises. 


Literature  177 


If  a  poem  is  dramatic,  the  child  may  make  the  ap- 
propriate gestures.  The  teacher  should  frequently  have 
a  child  to  suggest  the  parts  he  likes  best.  His  attention 
should  be  called  to  any  beautiful  phrases  or  correct 
forms.  He  should  be  encouraged  to  use  these  in  his  daily 
conversation,  first  by  helping  him  to  find  an  opportunity 
through  games  and  conversational  exercises,  and  later 
by  praising  any  spontaneous  effort. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Earh art,.  Types  in  Teaching 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 

Cooley,  Language  in  the  Grades 

Haliburton   and    Smith,   Teaching    Poetry   in   the   Grades 

Gessell,  The  Normal  Child  and  Primary  Education 

Hall,  The  Question  as  a  Factor  in  Education 

Leiper,  Language  in  the  Elementary  Grades 

Wilson,  Motivation 

Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  branches 


CHAPTER  XIV 

ARITHMETIC 

AIM 

The  first  question  which  presents  itself  is  the  "why" 
or  the  function  of  arithmetic.  This  is  a  very  important 
issue,  as  the  "what"  and  "how"  are  purified  and  modified 
by  the  use  made  of  the  arithmetical  knowledge. 

The  origin  of  arithmetic  dates  back  to  the  early  ages 
when  it  sprang  from  the  utilitarian  need  of  a  means  of 
dealing  with  the  quantitative  side  of  life.  In  the  differ- 
ent periods  which  have  elapsed  since  its  origin,  the  rea- 
sons for  teaching  arithmetic  have  varied.  The  utilita- 
rian reason  has  always  been  an  important  one,  and  in 
addition  several  other  reasons  have  been  promulgated. 
The  most  prominent  of  these  is  the  cultural  reason.  The 
advocates  of  this  reason  claimed  that  the  study  of  arith- 
metic developed  and  strengthened  the  mental  powers  by 
training  the  pupil  to  reason,  by  sharpening  the  wits,  and 
by  training  to  habits  of  accuracy.  In  addition  to  these, 
it  was  claimed  that  it  paved  the  way  for  the  sciences. 
These  claims  were  based  on  the  old  psychological  as- 
sumption that  the  brain  was  made  up  of  certain  faculties, 
as  the  faculty  of  reasoning.  It  was  thought  that  training 
the  pupil  to  reason  in  any  one  field  would  enable  him  to 
reason  in  any  field.  Modern  psychology  teaches  that 
this  is  not  altogether  true,  as  training  in  one  field  carries 
over  into  another  only  in  so  far  as  these  fields  are  similar. 

178 


Arithmetic  179 


Though  the  present  opinion  as  to  the  cultural  value  is 
not  so  extensive  in  its  scope  as  the  earlier  opinion,  it  is 
still  the  opinion  of  many  leading  educators  that  there  is 
a  cultural  value  which  is  a  necessary  part  of  a  broad 
education.  However,  the  primary  teacher  is  not  inter- 
ested, primarily,  in  this  discussion,  as  the  function  of 
primary  arithmetic  is  purely  utilitarian.  That  is,  it  is 
to  enable  the  child  to  do  the  things  which  he  wants  to  do 
in  his  daily  life  from  a  quantitative  standpoint. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

As  the  primary  purpose  of  arithmetic  is  to  help  the 
child  solve  the  common  problems  of  his  daily  life,  all  the 
first  work  should  be  closely  related  to  his  life;  for  in- 
stance, counting,  measuring,  weighing,  comparing,  gar- 
dening, and  games.  Practically  all  primary  arithmetic 
could  be  worked  out  through  these  activities  and  thus  be- 
come a  live  and  interesting  subject  to  the  child.  If  it 
were  worked  out  in  this  way  it  would  be  one  for  which 
he  would  feel  the  need,  and  one  which  he  would  desire 
to  learn. 

The  play  element  has  the  strongest  appeal  to  the  child 
and  should  always  stand  in  the  background  as  giving 
meaning  to  the  work  in  hand. 

The  needs  of  the  child  will  necessitate  the  ability  to 
write  and  read  numbers,  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  simple  division,  the 
common  measures  such  as  the  pint,  the  quart,  the  gallon, 
the  inch,  the  foot,  the  yard,  the  pound,  and  the  Roman 
numbers  from  I-XII.  This  good  working  knowledge 
should  mean  accuracy,  reasonable  speed,  and  the  ability 
to  apply  this  knowledge  to  the  mathematical  problems  of 
daily  life. 


180  How  "to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Course  of  Study 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper 
time  for  the  introduction  of  arithmetic  as  a  subject. 
Some  would  place  it  in  the  first  year;  others  in  the 
second  or  third  year.  Those  who  want  it  in  the  first 
year,  claim  that  the  child  is  as  ready  and  as  eager  to 
learn  number  facts  as  he  is  to  learn  to  read.  Those 
who  would  defer  the  number  work  until  later  argue  that 
though  the  child  may  be  anxious  to  learn  number  facts, 
it- will  be  of  much  more  profit  to  him  to  wait  longer  as 
he  will  be  better  developed,  and  that  this  time  would  be 
much  better  spent  in  adding  to  his  language  power. 

All  are  agreed  that  he  should  be  given  that  knowledge 
of  numbers  which  will  give  him  control  over  the  quan- 
titative side  of  his  social  and  industrial  life.  A'  study 
of  the  child's  activities  should  reveal  what  this  will  be. 

A  course  of  study  planned  as  a  compromise  between 
these  two  views  should  consist  of  the  following  work : 

First  Grade.  Counting,  reading,  and  writing  of  num- 
bers from  1-100  byTs,  by  10's,  and  by  5's;  simple  meas- 
uring and'^comparing,  incidental  arithmetic;  games  in- 
volving some  of  the  simple  addition  facts. 

Second  Grade.  Incidental  arithmetic ;  games,  reading 
and  writing  numbers  to  1000;  the  numerical  scale  of 
tens,  ones,  hundreds;  the  forty-five  addition  facts;  col- 
umn addition;  subtraction  based  on  the  forty-five  addi- 
tion facts;  measuring,  weighing,  comparing;  changing 
of  money;  telling  time;  simple  fractions  as  %,  J4,  %, 
multiplying  and  dividing  as  it  naturally  develops  in  the 
addition  tables. 

Third  Grade.  Incidental  arithmetic ;  games ;  reading 
and  writing  of  numbers  to   10,000;  review  of  addition 


Arithmetic  181 


and  subtraction;  carrying  in  addition,  borrowing  in  sub- 
traction; multiplication  tables;  carrying  in  multiplica- 
tion; measuring,  weighing,  comparing;  changing  of 
money;  simple  division  in  connection  with  the  multi- 
plication tables;  simple  fractions  in  connection  with  the 
construction  work  and  the  multiplication  tables. 

METHOD 

Practically  every  school  activity  offers  opportunity  for 
development  of  the  number  instinct.  All  such  opportu- 
nities should  be  noted  and  utilized  in  order  to  satisfy  the 
number  need.  Some  of  these  opportunities  are  suggested 
as  follows: 

1.  Find  the  number  of  children  present;  the  number 
absent ;  find  how  many  rows  of  seats ;  how  many  children 
in  each  row. 

2.  Tell  the  number  of  the  page  of  the  reading  lesson ; 
write  the  number  of  the  page  on  the  board;  how  many 
cards  each  child  received  in  the  word  game;  find  how 
many  times  a  new  word  occurs  in  the  reading  lesson; 
in  what  lines  this  word  is  found ;  the  number  of  scissors 
needed  for  each  row ;  the  parts  of  a  folded  paper  used 
in  the  construction  work,  for  example,  the  half,  the 
fourth;  the  number  of  squares  into  which  the  paper  is 
folded;  the  number  of  squares  cut  away. 

3.  In  nature  study  there  is  endless  opportunity  for 
the  number  element  as  the  number  of  different  kinds  of 
wild  flowers  found  on  the  way  to  school,  the  different 
kinds  of  trees. 

4.  Make  a  weather  calendar  using  dates. 

These  are  only  a  few  suggestions  as  to  the  possibilities 
of  utilizing  the  number  element  in  an  incidental  way. 
Not  only  will  these  needs  furnish  an  adequate  motive 


182  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


for  the  number  work,  but  the  result  will  be  the  develop- 
ment of  the  number  instinct  in  a  natural  way. 

Counting.  Counting  is  the  earliest  number  impulse 
and  forms  the  basis  of  practically  all  primary  arithmetic. 
The  first  counting  should  be  that  of  objects.  The  game 
element  may  be  utilized  to  an  advantage  in  these  early 
lessons;  for  instance,  the  teacher  takes  a  handful  of  corn 
and  allows  each  child  to  guess  how  many  grains  she  has. 
The  guesses  are  written  on  the  board,  and  then  the  grains 
are  counted.  Another  plan  is  to  scatter  the  grains  of 
corn  on  the  table  and  see  who  can  pick  up  the  greatest 
number. 

Many  and  varied  are  the  forms  which  the  concrete 
counting  may  take ;  for  instance,  the  number  of  children 
in  the  class  each  day,  the  number  of  children  in  the 
school,  the  number  of  books  in  the  class,  the  number 
of  sheets  of  paper  and  of  scissors  to  be  used  in  the 
handwork,  the  number  of  words  learned  or  the  number 
of  children  needed  to  dramatize  a  story.  These  are  only 
a  few  suggestions  of  the  natural  opportunities  for  con- 
crete counting  which  are  found  in  every  schoolroom. 

In  teaching  the  child  to  count  to  100,  time  may  be 
saved  if  he  is  first  taught  to  count  to  10,  then  to  20,  fol- 
lowed by  counting  to  100  by  10's;  for  instance,  10,  20, 
30,  40,  50,  60,  70,  80,  90,  100.  If  these  steps  are  thor- 
oughly taught  it  will  be  a  simple  matter  to  complete  the 
series  of  1  to  100  by  ones. 

After  the  child  has  learned  to  count  to  100,  the  next 
problem  is  that  of  reading  the  number  symbols.  This 
work  may  be  made  very  interesting  by  associating  it  with 
games  and  devices.  It  will  simplify  matters  first  to 
teach  thoroughly  the  reading  of  the  symbols  from  0-9. 

A  device  which  may  be  used  in  teaching  the  reading 


Arithmetic  183 


of  these  number  facts  is  as  follows :  the  figures  are  writ- 
ten on  cards  using  large  type.  These  cards  are  given  to 
the  class.  A  child  comes  forward  and  reads  the  first  row 
from  the  chart  and  then  places  the  pointer  on  1  and 
says,  "I  want  Mary  to  bring  me  1."  This  card  is  pinned 
up  and  he  then  calls  for  2.  He  continues  until  he  has 
made  the  entire  first  row. 

After  the  child  has  had  some  experience  in  reading 
from  0-9  in  the  regular  order,  he  is  trained  to  the  in- 
stantaneous recognition  of  these  figures.  When  this  step 
is  thoroughly  learned,  he  should  be  taught  to  read  the 
numbers  by  10's  beginning  with  naught,  as  0,  10,  20,  30, 
40,  50,  60,  70,  80,  90,  100.  If  these  two  things  are  thor- 
oughly taught,  the  remainder  of  the  series  will  fall  into 
an  easily  acquired  form.  In  other  words  if  he  knows 
the  figures  from  0-9,  he  very  quickly  learns  any  number 
symbol  within  the  decimal  series. 

The  third  problem  is  to  teach  the  writing  of  the  num- 
bers from  0-100.  This  should  be  done  in  a  similar  way, 
that  is,  the  child  is  first  taught  to  write  the  symbols 
from  0-9,  second  by  10's,  third,  the  entire  series. 

Counting,  reading,  and  writing  by  l's  and  10's  may 
be  extended  to  similar  work  with  5's,  2's,  3's,  4's,  etc., 
working  both  forward  and  backward.  These  exercises 
are  the  foundation  of  good  work  in  addition  and  multi- 
plication and  should  be  drilled  on  until  all  sums  of  this 
kind  can  be  given  accurately  and  rapidly. 

The  counting,  reading,  and  writing  of  numbers  should 
be  gradually  extended  beyond  TOO  as  the  child  advances. 

The  numbers  beyond  100  may  be  taught  in  a  very 
brief  time  by  following  this  same  plan. 

Addition.  Since  addition  is  .based  on  counting,  nat- 
urally it  is  the  next  step  in  the  arithmetic  process. 


184  How  to  'Teach  Primary  Grades 

Interesting  objects  should  be  used  in  natural  ways  in 
developing  the  addition  facts;  for  instance,  the  teacher 
uses  blocks  of  wood,  cardboard,  or  paper  and  calls  them 
railroad  cars.  She  has  each  child  to  form  a  train  of  3 
cars  loaded  with  horses,  then  has  him  couple  on  3  cars 
loaded  with  cows.  The  question  is  to  discover  how 
many  cars  he  has  in  the  entire  train.  This  little  device 
will  prove  more  interesting  to  him  than  to  find  out  how 
many  3  blocks  and  3  blocks  are.  The  objects  should  be 
changed  frequently  if  he  is  to  gain  the  true  number 
concept. 

Many  teachers  object  to  allowing  the  child  to  use  his 
fingers  as  they  feel  that  it  is  a  habit  which  will  be  hard 
to  break.  The  fault  is  not  in  allowing  him  to  use  these 
natural  counters,  but  in  not  training  him  to  rapid  oral 
work.  When  a  fact  can  be  given  automatically  there  is 
no  desire  to  use  the  fingers.  The  objects  are  to  be  dis- 
carded only  when  the  child  has  comprehended  the  fact 
that  a  figure  is  the  symbol  of  an  idea.  However,  a  too 
long-continued  use  of  objects  is  harmful  as  it  retards 
speed. 

The  forty-five  addition  facts  from  1-20  should  be 
taught  with  the  utmost  care  since  all  the  other  additional 
facts  are  based  on  these.  These  combinations  are  as 
follows : 

111111111222222223333333444444 
12345  678923  45  678934  5  678945  6789 

555556666777889 
567896789789899 


These   combinations   should  be   developed   and  given 
meaning  by  the  use  of  natural  and  interesting  objects. 


Arithmetic  •  185 


The  work  should  then  develop  into  abstract  work.  Only 
as  the  child  can  automatically  give  the  sum  of  any  num- 
ber symbols  has  he  mastered  the  quantitative  side  of  life 
as  it  applies  to  addition.  These  facts  should  be  drilled  on 
until  they  are  thoroughly  mastered. 

Inasmuch  as  the  child  is  familiar  with  reading  and  writ- 
ing numbers  to  100  before  he  begins  this  work,  after  he 
learns  3  and  2  are  5,  he  can  readily  see  that  3  and  22  are 
25 ;  3  and  32  are  35,  etc.,  to  3  and  92;  in  other  words  he 
should  be  led  to  see  that  3  added  to  any  number  ending 
in  2  will  give  the  next  number  ending  in  5.  This  can  be 
taught  in  all  the  combinations  and  is  a  direct  preparation 
for  column  addition. 

Single  column  addition  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
child  has  mastered  enough  combinations  to  justify  its  use; 
for  instance,  after  he  has  learned  2  3  5  he  could  add  a 

1  2  1 

column  made  of  2,  1,  2  and  1.  Before  giving  him  a  col- 
umn the  teacher  should  be  sure  he  has  had  all  the  neces- 
sary combinations  to  enable  him  to  add  the  column. 

He  should  not  be  allowed  to  form  the  habit  of  counting 
his  fingers  or  marks  in  column  addition,  as  this  retards 
speed.  For  this  same  reason  it  is  better  to  avoid  giving 
written  work  to  be  done  at  the  seat,  unless  the  teacher 
feels  sure  the  facts  are  automatic. 

Before  teaching  "carrying"  in  addition  it  will  be  wise 
to  develop  the  scale  of  ones,  tens,  hundreds,  etc.  Without 
this  knowledge  it  will  not  be  possible  to  teach  the  child 
the  reason  for  the  so-called  "carrying"  process.  A  reason 
should  always  be  given  where  it  is  possible,  as  the  thor- 
ough mastery  of  a  subject  is  more  quickly  accomplished 
if  it  has  its  basis  in  understanding. 

The  following  outline  is  given  by  way  of  suggestion  for 


186  How*  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


developing  the  numerical  scale  of  ones,  tens,  hundreds, 
etc. 

Material:  toothpicks,  shoe-pegs,  or  kindergarten  sticks, 
and  rubber  bands  or  string. 

I.  Counting  to  100  by  10's  is  reviewed. 

II.  Toothpicks  and  rubber  bands  are  given  to  each 
child.  "Count  out  10  picks  for  me  and  bind  with  a  rub- 
ber. Make  me  10  bundles  of  10  each.  Show  me  1  ten. 
Write  10  on  the  board.  Show  me  2  tens.  How  many 
is  that?  Write  20  for  me.  Show  me  3  tens.  How 
many  is  that?  Write  30."  The  teacher  should  con- 
tinue in  like  manner  until  each  child  has  comprehended 
the  fact  that  the  numbers  10,  20,  30,  etc.,  are  really  1 
ten,  2  tens,  3  tens,  etc. 

JII.  The  teacher  writes  60  on  the  board  and  asks, 
"How  many  is  this?  Read  it  by  tens."  She  then  writes 
70,  50,  80,  40,  and  has  each  read  by  tens. 

IV.  "Write  2  tens.  How  many  is  this?  Write  4 
tens.  How  many  is  this?"  She  continues  until  each 
child    thoroughly    understands    the    principle    involved. 

"How  many  figures  do  we  use  in  writing  the  tens  ?  In 
counting  to  see  what  a  number  is  we  count  from  right 
to  left.  See  which  place  is  occupied  by  the  figure  that 
tells  how  many  tens  there  are.  Let  us  see  if  this  is  true 
every  time."  She  has  each  child  to  write  2  tens,  7  tens, 
9  tens,  etc.  In  this  way  she  leads  him  to  discover  that 
the  tens  place  is  always  the  second  place  from  the  right. 

V.  "Show  me  1  ten  and  2  ones.  How  many  is  that? 
Write  it  on  the  board.  Show  me  3  tens  and  4  ones. 
How  many  is  that?  Write  it  on  the  board."  She  con- 
tinues until  each  child  has  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
principle. 

"Show  me  35  in  tens  and  ones.     Read  it  by  tens  and 


Arithmetic  187 


ones."  She  continues  until  each  child  understands  the 
principle.  "Which  is  the  tens  place?  Let  us  see  which 
is  the  ones  place.  Write  46.  Read  it  by  tens  and  ones. 
Which  is  the  figure  that  tells  the  number  of  ones?  Which 
place  is  that  if  you  count  from  the  right?"  She  contin- 
ues until  each  child  is  able  to  form  the  rule  that  the  ones 
occupy  the  first  place  from  the  right.  "Read  these  num- 
bers by  tens  and  ones."  She  places  several  numbers  on 
the  board  and  has  them  read. 

The  reason  for  carrying  in  addition  can  be  presented 
as  follows:  "What  is  this  number  (28)?  Read  it*  by 
tens  and  ones.  Place  that  many  toothpicks  on  your  desk. 
What  will  it  be?  Yes,  2  tens  and  8  ones.  What  is  this 
number  (44)  ?  Read  by  tens  and  ones.  Place  that  many 
more  tooth  picks  on  your  desk.  Let  us  add  them  together. 
Add  the  ones  first.  How  many?  When  you  have  enough 
ones  to  make  a  ten  you  must  bind  them  into  a  ten.  What 
will  12  ones  make?  Where  shall  I  place  the  2  ones?  Yes, 
on  the  ones  place.  What  shall  we  do  with  the  ten  ?  Yes, 
place  it  with  the  other  tens.  Add  the  tens.  How  many? 
Now,  where  shall  I  place  the  number?  Yes,  in  the  tens 
place."  The  teacher  should  have  a  great  number  of  ex- 
amples worked  using  bundles  of  toothpicks  until  the  child 
understands  thoroughly  what  is  meant  by  carrying. 

Drill  in  addition  should  be  continued  through  all  the 
grades,  as  accuracy  in  this  process  is  likely. to  be  fol- 
lowed by  accuracy  in  all  other  processes. 

If  the  child  is  to  be  entire  master  of  the  adding  habit 
he  must  be  trained  to  check  his  work.  In  addition  the 
check  is  to  add  up  and  then  down. 

Subtraction.  Subtraction  and  addition  are  so  closely 
related  that  the  processes  should  be  taught  simultane- 
ously. 


188  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

The  Austrian  or  adding  method  of  subtraction  is  ad- 
vocated by  many  teachers.  These  teachers  claim  that 
the  same  habit  does  for  both  processes,  and  that  this 
method  of  subtraction  gives  additional  practice  in  add- 
ing. Investigation  will  show  that  this  is  the  method  used 
in  the  business  world ;  for  instance,  in  making  change,  by 
expert  cashiers,  and  others. 

The  Austrian  method  is  illustrated  in  the  following 
process:  In  the  example  7 — 2  instead  of  saying  "7  less 
2,"  we  would  say  "5  added  to  2  makes  7." 

An  example  involving  the  carrying  process  would  be 
as  follows: 

What  is  the  difference  between  35  and  17? 

To  find  the  difference  between  35  and  17,  we  find  out. 
what"  must  be  added  to  17  to  make  35. 

35     35  =  3  tens  and  5  ones. 
17     17=1  ten  and  7  ones. 

18 

As  7  ones  h  greater  than  5  ones  we  cannot  add  any- 
thing which  would  make  5  ones,  therefore  we  must 
change  one  of  the  3  tens  to  ones  and  add  this  to  the  5 
ones.    Then  we  have 

2  tens  and  15  ones 

1  ten  and  7  ones 

1  ten  (added  to  1  ten)    8  ones  (added  to  7  ones) 

The  subtraction  process  which  involves  carrying 
should  not  be  taught  until  the  simpler  process  is  thor- 
oughly understood. 


Arithmetic  189 


The   borrowing   process   in   the   "take-away"   method 
may  be  rationalized  as  follows : 


35 
17 


"Show  me  35  in  tens  and  ones.  Place  on  your  desk." 
The  teacher  writes  35  on  board.  "I  want  you  to  take 
this  many  away."  She  places  17  under  35.  "How  many 
is  this  in  tens  and  ones?  Which  do  we  take  away  first? 
(They  have  already  had  the  process  which  does  not  in- 
volve borrowing.)  "Can  you  take  away  7  ones  from  5 
ones?  What  shall  we  do?  Mary  says  to  break  up  one 
ten.  How  many  ones  will  we  have  ?  Then  take  away  7. 
How  many  left  ?  Which  is  the  ones  place  ?  Then  where 
shall  I  place  8  ones  (figure)  ?  How  many  tens  did  we 
have  left?  How  many  were  we  to  take  away?  Take 
one  ten  away.  How  many  does  that  leave?  Where  is 
the  tens  place?  Then  where  shall  I  place  the  figure 
that  tells  how  many  tens  we  have  left?"  Objects  should 
be  used  only  long  enough  to  rationalize  the  process. 

The  teacher  should  definitely  decide  which  process  of 
subtraction  she  desires  to  use,  selecting  the  one  which 
she  thinks  will  give  the  best  results.  She  should  not 
attempt  to  teach  both  methods,  as  it  will  confuse  the 
child.  After  one  method  has  been  established,  the  teacher 
should  avoid  trying  to  change  it. 

The  child  should  be  trained  to  use  a  check  in  all  sub- 
traction work.  This  will  consist  in  adding  the  result  to 
the  second  number  in  the  series. 

Multiplication.  Multiplication  is  developed  as  a 
means  of  shortening  addition  and  should  find  its  basis  in 
addition. 


190  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Before  beginning  to  teach  a  table  rapid  counting  by 
the  number  of  the  table  should  be  given,  beginning  with 
naught  and  extending  to  the  limit  of  the  table;  for  in- 
stance, for  the  table  of  3's  the  counting  should  be  3,  6, 
9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  24,  30. 

A  table  should  first  be  memorized  in  regular  order 
for  three  reasons,  (1)  it  is  easier,  (2)  it  is  rhythmic, 
and  (3)  its  regular  order  is  a  background  of  knowledge 
to  which  the  child  may  return  if  he  forgets  a  fact.  After 
the  table  is  learned  in  the  regular  order  it  should  be 
thoroughly  drilled  on  in  the  irregular  order  as  this  is 
the  way  it  is  used  in  the  step  of  application.  The  step 
of  application  should  follow  each  table.  This  should 
take  the  form  of  oral  and  written,  and  concrete  and  ab- 
stract exercises. 

1  Investigations  show  that  the  tables  offer  varying  de- 
grees of  difficulty.  It  would  seem  best  to  begin  with  the 
one  which  offers  the  least  difficulty  and  teach  the  others 
according  to  their  rank  in  this  scale.  The  following 
order  is  suggested,  10's,  5's,  2's,  4's,  8's,  3's,  6's,  9's,  7's. 

The  attention  should  be  called  to  the  similarity  be- 
tween the  products  in  the  tables  of  2's,  4's,  8's  and  in 
the  3's,  6's,  9's.  In  counting  by  9  call  the  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  last  figure  is  one  less  each  time  until 
naught  is  reached  when  it  changes  to  9. 

Simple  division  and  simple  fractions  may  be  devel- 
oped in  connection  with  a  multiplication  table;  for  in- 
stance, when  2(2)  has  been  developed,  the  child  may  be 
asked,  "How  many  2's  in  4?    What  is  V2  of  4?" 

The  process  of  carrying  in  multiplication  should  be 
presented  in  such  a  way  that  the  child  may  understand 
the  reason  for  the  process.     If  the  mastery  of  carrying 


lSDecial  Method  in  Arithmetic,  McMurry. 


Arithmetic  191 


in  addition  has  been  based  on  understanding,  this  will  be 
an  easy  task.  The  following  outline  is  offered  as  a 
suggestion : 


65 
3 


"Read  65  in  tens  and  ones.  3(5  ones)  make  15  ones. 
How  many  tens  is  this?  How  many  ones  left?  Where 
is  the  ones  place  ?  Place  the  5  ones  in  ones  place.  What 
is  3(6  tens)  ?  Add  the  1  ten.  How  many  hundreds  in 
19  tens?  How  many  tens  left ?  Where  is  the  tens  place ? 
Write  9  tens  in  the  tens  place.  Where  is  the  hundreds 
place?  Write  8  hundred  in  its  place.  What  did  we 
really  do?  Yes,  we  found  how  much  3(65)  were.  Then 
how  can  we  tell  if  we  are  right?  Then  let  us  add  3(65's) 
together." 

Multiplying  by  numbers  ending  in  naught  offers  an- 
other process  for  which  the  children  should  understand 
the  reason.    The  outline  of  the  process  is  as  follows : 

1.  Counting  to  100  by  10's  is  reviewed.  2.  The  table 
of  10's  is  reviewed.  3.  "How  many  are  four  tens? 
Place  a  naught  at  the  right  of  4.  What  number  have 
you?  40  is  how  many  4's?  Place  a  naught  to  the  right 
of  6.  What  number  have  you?  60  is  how  many  6,s?,, 
The  teacher  should  continue  until  the  child  sees  that  each 
time  a  naught  is  placed  to  the  right  of  a  figure  it  be- 
comes ten  times  what  it  was  before.  4.  She  should  lead 
him  to  see  that  when  he  multiplies  a  number  ending  in 
naught  he  simply  draws  or  places  the  naught  to  the  right 
of  where  he  will  place  his  answer,  which  amounts  to 
multiplying  by  ten.  5.  She  then  leads  him  to  see  that 
if  he  adds  2  naughts  it  is  the  same  as  multiplying  by  100. 


192  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Measuring,  Weighing,  Comparing.  The  child  may 
compare  the  height  of  different  children,  and  then  meas- 
ure to  find  if  he  is  right.  He  may  guess  the  length  of 
desks,  lines,  sticks,  and  other  familiar  objects.  In  the 
same  way  he  may  guess  as  to  the  quantity  of  water, 
sand,  etc.,  in  pints,  quarts,  etc.  He  should  have  a  play 
store  and  buy  and  sell  by  the  yard,  pint,  quart,  gallon, 
and  pound.    Toy  money  should  be  used  to  make  change. 

Through  those  activities  not  only  will  much  be  learned 
about  these  common  measures  but  many  practical  prob- 
lems in  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication  will  be 
worked  out. 

Roman  Numbers.  The  small  child  has  very  little  use 
for  Roman  numbers  with  the  exception  of  the  figures 
from  I-XII.  These  should  be  taught  in  connection  with 
the  face  of  the  clock  or  the  watch. 


CHAPTER  XV 

ARITHMETIC— (Continued) 

THE  LESSON  PLAN 

Two  types  of  lessons  are  involved  in  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic ;  namely,  the  inductive  lesson  and  the  drill  les- 
son. The  inductive  lesson  is  always  used  in  the  presenta- 
tion and  the  development  of  a  new  process.  It  consists 
of  a  (1)  problem,  (2)  the  study  of  individual  points 
which  will  help  solve  the  problem,  and  (3)  the  sum- 
mary or  the  solution  of  the  problem. 

After  the  new  process  has  been  developed  the  aim  is  to 
make  this  process  function  in  an  automatic  way.  The 
child  must  form  the  habit  of  thinking  and  of  saying  num- 
bers in  a  certain  order,  and  of  giving  a  certain  response 
to  a  certain  combination.  When  he  sees  or  hears  5x5 
he  should  automatically  think  or  say  25.  In  other  words, 
the  processes  involved  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  simple  division  must  be  relegated  to  the  plane  of 
habit  so  that  the  mind  may  be  freely  given  to  the  thought 
involved  in  solving  the  natural  problems  of  daily  life. 

The  steps  in  the  drill  lesson  should  be  those  involved  in 
any  habit-forming  lesson ;  namely,  ( 1 )  a  motive  for  estab- 
lishing the  response;  (2)  a  clear  idea  of  the  response; 
(3)  attentive  repetition  of  the  response;  (4)  no  excep- 
tion; (5)  reviews;  and  (6)  the  application  of  the  habit 
in  a  practical  way. 

1.     Motive.    In  arithmetic,  as  in  all  other  subjects, 

193 


194  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

interest  is  the  keynote  to  success.  As  the  child  is  essen- 
tially a  creature  of  the  present,  this  interest  finds  its 
source  in  his  present-day  life ;  that  is,  in  the  schoolroom, 
home,  and  playground  activities.  In  other  words,  his 
arithmetic  lessons  should  grow  out  of  his  real  need  for 
numbers.  Only  in  this  way  can  the  teacher  lead  him  to 
feel  the  need  of  arithmetic. 

It  is  true  that  many  children  naturally  like  the  work 
with  numbers  and  delight  in  rapid  work  with  abstract 
numbers,  but  the  greater  number  would  work  with  added 
zest  if  the  work  were  approached  from  the  standpoint 
of  utility.  It  is  every  child's  natural  right  to  know  why 
he  should  learn  a  certain  process;  in  other  words,  he 
must  see  and  feel  that  he  is  getting  something  worth 
while  out  of  it  so  that  he  may  bring  interest,  intelligence, 
and  energy  to  bear  upon  the  process. 

If  the  teacher  will  plan  to  bring  out  the  number  ele- 
ment in  handwork,  nature  study,  reading,  class  manage- 
ment, and  all  other  schoolroom  activities,  the  problem  of 
motive  will,  in  a  measure,  be  solved. 

Probably  one  of  the  best  sources  of  motive  is  that  of 
the  game.  Though  the  game  may  take  many  and  varied 
forms,  it  will  always  be  full  of  interest  to  the  child, 
causing  him. to  bring  much  energy  to  bear  upon  memo- 
rizing the  number  facts  involved. 

Games.  Games  containing  the  number  element 
may  be  used  very  profitably  in  developing  the  number 
instinct.  The  teacher  should  use  games  requiring  much 
counting,  bean  bag  games,  and  easy  scoring  games. 

a.  The  class  is  divided  into  two  or  more  sections. 
Each  section  is  provided  with  a  bean-bag,  ball,  or  an 
eraser.  A  waste  basket  or  a  box  is  placed  at  a  given 
distance   from   a  base.     Each  side  takes   turns   in  the 


Arithmetic  193 


attempt  to  pitch  the  bean  bag  into  the  receptacle.  Each 
time  the  attempt  is  successful  it  scores  one.  The  side 
with  the  largest  number  of  scores  wins  the  game. 

b.  A  basket  or  box  is  placed  as  in  game  one.  Each 
child  in  the  class  is  given  two  trials  in  the  attempt  to 
pitch  the  bean  bag  into  the  receptacle.  If  the  bean  bag 
goes  into  the  receptacle  it  counts  two;  a  failure  counts 
one.  At  the  close  of  the  game  each  child  adds  up  his 
numbers.     The  numbers  may  be  varied. 

c.  The  class  is  divided  into  sections  as  in  game  one. 
In  place  of  using  a  basket  or  box  a  circle  is  drawn  on 
the  floor.    The  procedure  is  the  same  as  in  game  one. 

d.  The  teacher  draws  two  concentric  circles  on  the 
floor.  The  smaller  circle  is  numbered  two,  and  the  larger 
one.    The  game  proceeds  as  in  game  two. 

e.  The  players  are  seated  in  rows,  each  row  to  have 
the  same  number  of  children.  The  first  child  in  each  row 
is  given  a  bean  bag.  At  a  given  signal  each  leader  lifts 
the  bean  bag  back  over  his  head,  and  drops  it  on  the  desk 
behind.  The  second  child  in  turn  lifts  it  over  his  head 
in  the  same  manner.  Each  child  in  turn  lifts  it  over 
his  head  until  the  last  child  in  the  row  is  reached.  This 
child  runs  to  the  front  and  places  the  bean  bag  on  the 
first  desk  in  the  row.  The  row  first  accomplishing  this 
scores  one.  Then  each  child  moves  back  one  seat  and 
the  child  bringing  the  bean  bag  forward  occupies  the 
first  seat.  The  play  then  continues  as  before. 
Books  of  Games — 

Smith,  Number  Games,  Teachers'  College,  New  York. 
Johnson,  Education  by  Plays  and  Games,  Ginn  &  Co., 

Boston. 
Holton,  Games,  Seat  Work,  and  Sense  Training,  A. 

Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago. 


196  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

2.  Clear  Idea  of  the  Response.  A  clear  idea  of  the 
thing  to  be  drilled  on  is  an  essential  element  in  a  drill 
lesson,  inasmuch  as  drill  is  for  the  purpose  of  deepening 
certain  impressions  or  making  certain  connections.  Since 
each  repetition  should  further  this  purpose  it  is  of  vital 
importance  that  the  impression  be  a  clear  one.  It  will 
be  best  to  use  only  a  very  few  combinations  in  any  one 
drill  lesson,  as  too  many  will  result  in  a  confused  impres- 
sion of  the  desired  response. 

3.  Attentive  Repetition.  After  the  clear  idea  is 
acquired,  the  habit  of  making  the  correct  response  rap- 
idly and  automatically  is  formed  through  attentive  repe- 
tition. 

However  strong  the  motive  with  which  the  child  starts, 
the  attention  is  likely  to  wander  if  the  drill  is  of  long 
duration.  Usually  a  short,  snappy  drill  requiring  imme- 
diate response  will  prove  much  more  effective  than  one 
of  longer  period. 

A  great  variety  of  games  and  devices  should  be  used 
if  the  child  is  to  be  kept  up  to  the  mark  in  attention. 

4.  No  Exceptions.  The  early  drill  lessons  should 
be  so  conducted  that  the  possibility  of  an  error  will  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  otherwise  the  tendency  will  be 
for  the  child  to  form  the  habit  of  guessing  which  leads 
to  inaccuracy. 

Strayer1  says,  "Our  nervous  system  is  so  constructed 
that  to  do  anything  once  leaves  a  tendency  to  do  the 
same  thing  the  same  way  when  next  we  are  placed  in 
a  similar  situation.  It  is  bad  to  allow  careless  work  or 
random  guessing,  not  simply  because  the  result  in  this 
one  case  may  be  wrong,  but  more  especially  because  the 
tendency  to  the  wrong  reaction  is  there  and  must  be 


iA  Brief  Course   in   the  Teaching-  Process. 


Arithmetic  197 


overcome  before  the  correct  action  can  be  fixed   as  a 
habit." 

The  teacher  should  have  very  little  concert  work,  as 
she  can  be  sure  of  neither  accuracy  nor  attention. 

5.  Reviews.  If  the  number  facts  are  to  be  per- 
manently fixed  there  should  be  frequent  reviews  or  drills. 
The  length  of  time  elapsing  between  these  reviews  or 
drills  should  be  gradually  lengthened.  They  should  not 
be  entirely  discontinued  until  the  child  shows  satisfactory 
evidence  that  the  number  habit  is  firmly  and  perma- 
nently established. 

6.  Application.  If  the  number  facts  learned  are 
to  have  real  significance  there  should  be  a  definite  step 
of  application  in  both  concrete  and  abstract  exercises. 
This  should  be  both  oral  and  written. 

If  the  child  is  to  develop  the  ability  to  apply  his  knowl- 
edge to  the  ordinary  problems  of  daily  life  the  material 
and  language  used  should  be  varied  in  form.  Often  he 
can  understand  the  problem  only  when  it  is  expressed 
in  a  certain  phraseology.  The  teacher  should  be  sure 
that  he  thoroughly  understands  each  problem  and  that 
he  is  developing  the  power  to  analyze  a  situation  and 
discover  what  to  do. 

It  is  not  possible  for  a  text-book  to  be  written  which 
will  furnish  the  concrete  problems.  These  must  develop 
from  the  everyday  life  of  the  pupil.  They  should  be 
of  such  nature  as  to  appeal  to  him  as  practical  from  his 
standpoint.  Not  only  should  these  problems  be  given 
but  the  child  should  be  permitted  to  make  up  problems. 
He  should  be  encouraged  to  watch  his  games  and  other 
daily  experiences  for  these  problems.  This  will  stimu- 
late vigorous  thinking. 

The  teacher  should  make  a  list  of  the  interests  of  the 


198  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

child  as  a  basis  for  the  concrete  work.  If  the  problem 
does  not  touch  his  active  interests,  it  is  not  concrete  in 
the  best  sense. 

The  ideal  way  to  learn  the  arithmetic  processes  would 
be  through  work  with  concrete  examples,  but  because 
accuracy  and  speed  are  necessary  if  the  child  is  to  be 
master  of  the  quantitative  side  of  life,  there  must  be  work 
in  abstract  exercise  both  oral  and  written. 

Oral  work  should  always  precede  written  work;  in 
fact,  the  only  excuse  written  work  has  for  existence  is 
that  the  mind  is  unable  to  solve  many  problems  without 
the  aid  of  the  pencil. 

Formal  analysis  has  no  place  in  the  primary  grades, 
but  it  is  advisable  to  train  the  child  to  tell  how  he  arrives 
at  a  solution  and  why  he  uses  a  certain  process.  Not 
only  does  this  prevent  guessing  but  it  reveals  the  line 
of  reasoning.  An  exact  form  in  the  wording  should 
not  be  required,  but  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to 
seek  for  the  best  and  briefest  form  of  analysis. 

Class  Mechanics.  As  previously  stated  every  pre- 
caution should  be  taken  against  the  first  error.  In  a 
drill,  it  is  better  to  keep  the  desired  response  in  view 
for  reference,  should  there  be  hesitation  over  the  answer. 
The  child  should  be  encouraged  not  to  answer  unless  he 
is  sure  of  the  correctness  of  his  response. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSON 

First  or  Second  Grade 

I.     Topic:     Developing  the  addition  facts  3  2  4  and 

3  4  2 

the  allied  multiplication,  and  division  facts. 


Arithmetic  199 


II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  to  dis- 
cover certain  number  facts  through  the  use  of  interesting 
objects. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  play  the  games.  (2) 
To  read  the  numbers. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1.    Objects  "How  would  you  like  to  play  that 

a.  blocks  you  have  a  train  and  some  cars?   Let 

us  play  that  these  blocks  are  cars." 
The  teacher  gives  each  child  6  blocks. 
"Make  a  train  with  3  cars.  Couple 
3  more  to  your  train.  How  many 
cars  have  you?  Take  away  3.  How 
3  4  2  many    left?      John    and    Sam    may 

3  2  4  switch   together   the   cars   they   have 

-  -  -  left.    How  many  cars  are  3  cars  and 

3  cars?  Make  a  train  with  4  cars. 
Add  2  more.  How  many  have  you? 
How  many  are  4  cars  and  2  cars? 
"What  are  your  cars  filled  with? 
Switch  3  cars  of  chickens  to  the  main 
track.  Switch  3  more  cars  to  the 
main  track.  How  long  is  your  train 
now?  How  many  cars  did  you  have 
at  first?  (3)  Then  how  many  did 
you  switch  to  the  main  track?  How 
many  are  3  cars  and  3  cars?"  She 
should  develop  the  idea  of  4  cars  and 
2  cars  by  allowing  the  children  to  use 
this  number  of  cars  in  the  play. 

b.  toy  money  "Each  boy  and  girl  may  count  out 

6  pennies.  Let  us  play  we  are  going 
to  buy  some  apples  and  candy.  You 
may  spend  3  cents  for  apples."     She 


200 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


c.   boys 


2.  Pictures :  Cards 
with  groups  of  2,  3,  and 
4  cherries. 


has  each  child  lay  3  cents  on  his 
desk.  "How  much  money  have  you 
left?  Now  buy  3  cents  worth  of 
candy.  How  much  money  have  you 
spent?  How  much  did  you  spend  for 
apples?  How  much  for  candy? 
How  much  is  3  cents  and  3  cents?" 
The  teacher  then  allows  them  to 
spend  4  pennies  and  2  pennies  until 
the  idea  of  4  and  2  is  fully  developed. 

"Let  us  play  a  game-  I  want  3 
boys  to  come  and  stand  here.  Look 
at  them  and  then  hide  your  eyes;  I 
am  going  to  touch  some  other  boys 
who  are  to  come  and  stand  by  these. 
When  I  clap  my  hands  you  may  look 
up  and  I  want  to  see  who  can  first 
tell  me  how  many  children  are  stand- 
ing." She  has  3  others  to  come. 
"How  many  were  there  at  first? 
How  many  more  did  it  take  to  make 
6?  How  many  are  3  and  3?"  The 
teacher  uses  4  boys  and  2  boys  in  the 
game  until  the  idea  that  4  and  2  are 
6  is  developed. 

"Let  us  play  that  these  are  real 
cherries.  Which  card  would  you 
rather  have?  Mary  may  have  a  card 
with  2  cherries  and  Sam  one  with  4. 
How  many  cherries  have  we  given 
away?  Let  us  play  that  it  is  Eliza- 
beth's birthday,  and  Helen  brings  her 
4  cherries  (card)  and  Edith  brings 
her  2;  how  many  has  she?  Let  us 
play  that  she  eats  2  cherries,  how 
many  has  she?"  The  teacher  should 
continue  until  the  other  facts  are  de- 
veloped. 


Arithmetic 


201 


3.    Imagery 


4.    Symbols 

3  4  2 
3  2  4 

6  6  6 


3j6    2(3) 


"How  many  would  like  to  play  the 
game  of  'Imagination'?  Shut  your 
eyes  and  let  us  imagine  that  we  have 
3  pennies  in  one  hand.  Can  you  see 
them  with  your  mind?  Now  imagine 
you  have  3  in  the  other  hand.  Can 
you  see  them?  How  many  pennies 
have  you  in  all?"  She  continues 
until  all  facts  are  developed. 

"Boys  and  girls  let  me  show  you 
how  to  write  3  and  3  are  6.  Mary 
may  read  it.  John.  Sam.  Let  me 
show  you  how  to  write  4  and  2  are 
6.  Mary  may  read  it  for  me.  How 
would  we  write  2  and  4  are  6?" 
,Read  this  for  me  3.  "How  many  3's 
3 


in  6?  How  many  are  2(3)?"  The 
children  are  now  ready  for  the 
drill.  Usually  a  drill  will  be  more 
interesting  if  two  or  three  facts  are 
drilled  on  at  one  time  as  this  offers 
more  variety.  For  a  type  on  the  drill 
lesson  see  the  plan  for  the  drill  on 
multiplication  table,  pages  204  to  205. 
These  addition  facts  may  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  multiplication  facts. 
After  these  facts  are  thoroughly 
learned  the  series  should  be  carried 
to  100;  for  instance  3  13  23  33  etc. 
3    3    3    3 


Subtraction.  If  the  teacher  prefers  to  use  the  Aus- 
trian method  of  subtraction,  she  should  first  drill  on  the 
addition  facts  just  developed  and  then  introduce  the  sub- 


202  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

traction  by  addition;  for  example,  "What  must  we  add 
to  3  to  make  6?"  If  the  old  "take-away"  method  is 
used,  these  subtraction  facts  should  be  developed  paral- 
lel with  the  addition  facts. 

Previous  to  this  lesson  the  children  have  reviewed  the 
games  and  exercises  on  reading,  writing,  and  counting 
by  2's  to  30. 

Third  Grade 

I.  Topic:  .Development  of  the  multiplication  table 
of  2's. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  lead  the  children  to 
see  the  need  of  the  multiplication  table.  (2)  To  teach 
them  the  meaning  of  the  table. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  To  learn  a  quicker  way  of  find- 
ing the  score  in  the  game. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1(2)  =2  The  children  have  been  playing  a 

2  (2)  =4  bean  bag  game  in  which  the  bean  bag 

3  (2)  =6  was  thrown  into  a  ring.  Each  time 
4(2)  =8  it  went  into  the  ring  it  scored  2. 
5  (2)  =10  At  the  close  of  the  game,  the  scores 
6(2)  =12  were  as  follows: 

7(2)  =14                                          2           2           2  2 

8(2)=16                                          2           2           2  2 

9(2)=18                                         —         —           2  2 

10  (2)  =20                                                                   2  2 

2  — 

Each  score  was  added- 

"Do  any  of  you  know  how  we 
could  have  saved  time  in  finding  our 
score?     What  is  each  figure?     How 


Arithmetic  203 


many  2's  have  you,  Mary?  How 
many  have  4 (2's)  ?  If  we  had  known 
how  many  4 (2's)  were,  could  we  have 
saved  time  ?  How  many  2's  have  you, 
John?  How  many  have  3 (2's)  ? 
Could  we  have  saved  time  in  these? 
What  would  you  have  needed  to 
know  in  order  to  save  time,  Sam?" 
The  teacher  has  each  child  to  tell 
what  he  should  have  known  in  order 
to  save  time.  "Do  you  know  what 
we  call  the  process  of  finding  how 
much  3(2)  is?  Suppose  we  find  out 
what  the  entire  table  is.  What  part 
have  we  found  out?  Suppose  we 
start  with  2.  Let  us  write  the  2's  in 
this  form: 


(9) 

(8) 

2 

(7) 

2 

2 

(6) 

2 

2 

2 

(5) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

(4) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

(3)     2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

(2)     2      2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

(1)     2      2      2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2      2      2      2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

She  allows  the  children  to  suggest 
how  many  2's  to  place  in  each  row. 
"How  shall  we  remember  how  many 
2's  in  each  row?  Suppose  we  place 
the  number  of  2's  over  each  row. 
How  shall  we  know  this  number  is 
not  to  be  added  in  with  the  2's?"  If 
the  child  cannot  suggest  a  way,  the 
teacher  suggests  the  use  of  paren- 
theses. "Let  us  add  each  row.  How 
many  does  1(2)  make?    In  the  table 


204  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

we  write  it  1(2)  makes  2  or  it  is 
shorter  to  write  it  1(2)  =2.  How 
many  does  2  (2's)  make?  How  shall 
we  write  this?  How  many  2's  in 
4?  What  is  %  of  4?"  The  entire 
table  should  be  developed  in  this 
way.  The  children  are  now  ready 
for  a  drill  on  the  table. 

Third  Grade 

I.  Topic:    Drill  on  1(2),  2(2),  3(2),  4(2),  5(2). 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  To  teach  a  part  of  multipli- 
cation table  of  2's  so  that  the  child  will  give  the  results 
automatically. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  To  memorize  that  part  of  the 
table  of  2's  which  he  needs  to  enable  him  to  find  his 
score  quickly. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1(2)  =2  "What  are  we  going  to  learn  that 

2 (2)  =4  will  help  us  in  our  bean-bag  game? 

3  (2)  =6  When   we    learn   this    table   we    will 

4(2)  =8  play   our   game   for   10  minutes.     If 

5  (2)  =10  each  of  us  has  five  throws,  how  much 

of  the  table  shall  we  need?" 

"I  will  write  the  table  here,  then 
we  will  see  how  quickly  we  can  mem- 
orize it"  The  teacher  writes  the 
table  on  the  board  in  the  form  shown 
in  the  margin  and  the  children 
study.  "How  many  are  sure  they 
know  th'e  first  two?  Look  some- 
where else  and  answer  when  I  ask 
the  number  of  2's.  Do  not  answer 
unless   you    are    sure."      She    allows 


Arithmetic  205 


several  children  to  answer.  "Let  us 
take  the  first  three  and  see  how 
quickly  you  can  learn  them." 

"Now  I  will  erase  them  and  I  want 
you  to  write  them  on  your  tablet. 
Do  not  write  the  answers  unless  you 
are  sure  you  are  right."  She  has 
several  children  to  read  their  com- 
binations. 

"Mary  may  come  and  be  the  teach- 
er and  ask  for  answers."  She  allows 
two  or  three  children  to  come  in  turn 
and  act  as  teacher. 

The  last  two  combinations  are 
drilled  on  in  the  same  way.  The 
teacher  then  places  all  the  combina- 
tions on  the  board  and  has  them 
read  -and  written  by  the  children. 
They  then  drill  on  the  combinations 
by  making  use  of  a  device.  The 
teacher  dictates  the  combinations  and 
the  children  write  and  supply  the 
products. 

The  children  are  then  permitted  to 
play  the  game  of  bean  bags.  If  a 
child  makes  a  mistake  he  is  not  al- 
lowed to  play  the  next  time,  but  must 
watch  the  other  children  until  he 
shows  evidence  of  being  able  to  give 
the  table  without  mistake. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Earhart,  Typ*es  in  Teaching 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  to  Teach 

Smith,  Handbook  to  Arithmetic 

Smith,  Teaching  of  Elementary  Arithmetic 

McMurry,   Special  Method  in  Arithmetic 


206  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Dewey  and  McClellan,  The  Psychology  of  Numbers 

Young,  The  Teaching  of  Mathematics 

Brown  and  Coffman,  How  to  Teach  Arithmetic 

Bailey,  Teaching  Arithmetic 

Stamper,  The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic 

Lincoln,  Everyday  Pedagogy 

Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 

Jessup  and  Coffman,  The  Supervision  of  Arithmetic 

Suzzallo,  The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic 


CHAPTER  XVI 

HANDWRITING 

AIM 

The  function  of  handwriting  is  to  furnish  a  medium 
for  the  communication  of  thought  through  certain  rec- 
ognized written  symbols. 

The  teacher's  aim  in  teaching  handwriting  is  to  train 
the  child  to  the  habits  of  reproducing  these  written  sym- 
bols accurately,  legibly,  beautifully,  and  automatically, 
using  an  easy  natural  movement,  and  maintaining  an  easy 
natural  position. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

It  is  no  more  pedagogical  to  begin  writing  by  teach- 
ing single  letters  than  it  is  to  begin  reading  by  teaching 
the  alphabet.  The  child  learns  to  write  so  that  he  may 
communicate  thought  through  written  symbols.  Hence, 
the  most  pedagogical  way  for  him  to  learn  to  write  should 
be  through  the  symbols  representing  his  thoughts.  .  In 
other  words  it  should  be  the  written  expression  of  a 
thought  which  he  desires  to  express  through  writing. 

In  the  beginning,  he  may  present  a  thought  by  pictorial 
drawing  as  the  rolling  of  the  hoop  /ZT77^~  ,  the  tick 
tock  of  the  clock  <*— ^  or  the  movement  of  the  swing 

V^. 0S  .  Later  he  may  write  a  note  of  invitation  to 
his  mother  inviting  her  to  visit  the  school,  as  "Come  to 
see  us;"  a  letter  to  an  absent  playmate,  as  "We  miss 
you;"  simple  letters  to  friends  and  relatives;  original 

207 


208  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

stories  and  simple  compositions  which  are  to  be  read  or 
sent  to  some  one,  words  to  be  used  in  puzzle  sentences 
and  other  games;  sentences  to  be  used  in  the  game  of 
"Deaf  and  Dumb."  Any  one  of  these  suggestions  should 
furnish  subject-matter  for  many  lessons. 

Certain  forms  for  these  written  symbols  have  been 
accepted  as  standard  for  the  business  world.  In  the  light 
of  present  knowledge  these  forms  are  the  most  economical 
from  the  standpoint  of  speed,  legibility,  and  beauty.  The 
following  symbols  are  a  reproduction  of  these  forms : 

The  Standard  Script  Alphabet 

cvJrvcb-i/Jy  a^  Jay  u^  yuJt/  J/  /rnJi/rt/ 


(Drawn  by  Miss  Sammie  Cleveland,  Supervisor  of  Writing, 
Chattanooga,  Tenn.) 

COURSE   OF   STUDY 

It  is  a  much-mooted  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
handwriting  should  constitute  a  part  of  the  curriculum 
of  the  first  grade  child.  Those  who  would  postpone 
it  until  the  second  or  third  year  contend  that  his 
muscles  are  not  sufficiently  developed  to  secure  the 
necessary  coordination  without  too  great  an  expendi- 
ture of  nervous  energy  and  a  probable  strain  of  the 
muscles.  Also,  that  he  has  very  little  need  for  the  ability 
to  write,  inasmuch  as  this  is  the  oral  period  of  his  de- 


Handwriting  209 


velopment.  They  would  utilize  this  early  period  of  his 
school  life  to  develop  the  proper  coordination  of  these 
muscles  through  the  rhythmic  and  pictorial  drawings, 
leaving  the  written  symbols  for  a  later  period. 

Those  who  would  place  handwriting  in  the  first  grade 
contend  that  the  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  child's 
eager  interest  in  learning  to  write  which  is  especially 
manifested  when  he  enters  school.  They  contend  that 
the  development  and  proper  coordination  of  muscles  may 
be  obtained  through  real  writing  without  harm  if  the 
emphasis  fall  on  work  on  the  blackboard. 

It  would  seem  wiser  to  effect  a  compromise  between 
these  two  opinions  and  begin  the  work  in  the  first  year 
with  the  pictorial  drawing  and  after  several  weeks  or 
months  gradually  change  to  the  written  symbols  used  in 
handwriting. 

First  Grade.  In  the  first  few  weeks  or  months  the 
subject-matter  should  consist  of  the  pictorial  representa- 
tion of  the  child's  experiences.  Mother  Goose  rhymes 
and  poems  will  prove  a  valuable  source  for  this  pictorial 
writing.    The  thought  in  the  rhyme  of 

"Jack  be  nimble, 
Jack  be  quick, 
Jack  jump  over  the  candle  stick." 

may    be   pictured   by   the    representation    of    the   jump 

as  /rrn 

The  poem  of  "The  Swing"  by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
may  be  pictured  by  the  movement  of  the  swing,  as  V— ^ 

The  turning  of  the  rope  may  be  represented  by  this 
picture  &£JLg/  •  This  same  picture  could  also  be  the 
representation  of  the  drawn  out  coil-spring  or  of  the 
little  girl's  curl.    A  row  of  hay  mounds  could  be  pictured 


210  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

as  /7W  ,  or  this  would  represent  a  certain  type  of 
iron  fence. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  major  movements  in  writing 
could  be  drilled  on  in  this  form  of  pictorial  writing. 
These  movements  are  as  follows:  t/D# 

The  different  forms  which  are  used  in  the  development 
of  the  letters  are  derived  from  these  movements.  They 
are  as  follows:  /I is  o  /^y^T^S  *"*" 

After  this  preliminary  work  the  child  may  write  simple 
letters  of  invitation,  as  "Come  to  see  me/'  to  parents, 
relatives,  playmates,  or  other  schools;  letters  of  thanks, 
as  "We  thank  you";  letters  to  absent  playmates,  as  "We 
miss  you." 

Occasionally,  a  simple  poem  which  is  to  be  sent  to 
some  one  will  furnish  material  for  many  lessons  in 
writing,  as 

"Twinkle,  twinkle,  little  star; 
How  I  wonder  what  you  are, 
Up  above  the  world  so  high, 
Like  a  diamond  in  the  sky." 

Second  and  Third  Grades.  Rhythmic  exercises  for 
muscular  control  on  the  different  writing  movements ;  for 
instance,  the  direct  oval ;  words  needed  for  simple  invita- 
tions, letters,  and  games.  Written  reproductions  of  simple 
stories  used  in  the  language  lesson;  writing  of  original 
stories  from  pictures;  simple  compositions  from  nature 
study  subjects. 

METHOD 

Position.  Inasmuch  as  a  natural,  easy  position  in 
writing  is  an  economy  of  time  and  nervous  energy,  it 


Handwriting  211 


should  be  an  important  part  of  the  teacher's  aim  to  train 
the  child  to  form  this  habit  from  the  beginning. 

He  should  face  the  desk  squarely,  sitting  well  back  in 
the  seat,  with  head  and  body  erect,  though  some  forward 
bending  is  necessary,  and  with  feet  flat  on  the  floor.  The 
whole  of  the  right  forearm  with  the  exception  of  the 
elbow,  should  rest  on  the  desk,  supported  by  the  muscular 
pad  just  below  the  elbow  and  by  the  tips  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  fingers.  The  entire  left  forearm  except  the 
elbow  should  also  rest  on  the  desk  at  right  angle  with  the 
right  forearm. 

The  pen,  pencil,  or  crayon  should  be  held  lightly  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  fingers  and  the  thumb  at  about 
one  and  one-half  inches  from  the  point.  The  first  finger 
rests  on  the  top  of  the  pencil,  which  crosses  the  second 
finger  just  below  the  first  joint,  and  comes  into  contact 
with  the  hand  at  the  base  of  the  first  finger.  All  the 
fingers  are  slightly  bent,  each  one  slightly  more  than  the 
preceding  one.  The  hand  glides  on  the  tips  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  fingers. 

Movement.  The  most  commonly  accepted  move- 
ment in  hand-writing  is  the  muscular  movement.  Experi- 
ment has  shown  that  this  is  the  easiest,  smoothest,  and 
most  natural  movement.  The  large  fleshy  muscle  of  the 
forearm  just  below  the  elbow  is  used  as  a  rolling  base; 
the  muscles  of  the  upper  arm  and  of  the  shoulder  control 
the  movement. 

Since  the  muscular  movement  used  in  writing  is  pro- 
duced by  the  large  muscles  located  above  the  elbow  and 
around  the  shoulder,  extensive  training  of  these  muscles 
is  necessary  before  the  writing  habit  is  satisfactorily 
established.  Long  before  the  period  when  the  real  writ- 
ing lessons  begin  the  child  may  be  trained  in  muscular 


212  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

movement  through  rhythmic  games  and  pictorial  writing. 
The  rhythmic  and  pictorial  writing  games  are  regulated 
by  marking  the  time  in  some  way,  as  by  counting,  tap- 
ping, rhythmic  phrasing,  music,  or  the  repeating  of  poetry. 

Rhythm.  In  any  form  of  muscular  movement 
rhythm  is  an  important  consideration.  If  the  movement 
is  accompanied  by  rhythm  it  results  in  ease,  smoothness, 
and  regularity.  We  have  only  to  note  the  rhythm  of 
movement  when  a  group  of  laborers  sing  as  they  ply 
the  pick  or  shovel,  to  be  convinced  of  its  value. 

In  the  rolling  of  the  hoop  the  teacher  repeats,  "Roll, 
roll,  roll"  rhythmically  as  the  child  makes  the  picture. 
In  the  tick-tock  of  the  clock  she  repeats  "Tick-tock,  tick- 
tock,"  rhythmically  as  he  makes  the  movement.  This 
rhythmic  idea  may  be  carried  out  in  many  of  the  sug- 
gestions for  pictorial  writing  given  in  the  course  of  study. 
This  pictorial  and  rhythmic  work  should  be  continued  for 
several  weeks  or  months  as  it  builds  a  strong  foundation 
for  the  work  which  is  to  follow.  It  should  be  followed 
up  by  writing  done  to  rhythmic  counting,  phrasing,  sing- 
ing, instrumental,  or  phonograph  music.  A  catalogue 
from  any  reliable  phonograph  house  should  offer  sugges- 
tions of  records  suitable  for  this  work. 

Rhythmic  and  pictorial  drawing  is  followed  by  the 
writing  of  words.  The  children  decide  to  write  a  letter 
of  invitation  to  some  one  to  visit  the  school,  as  "Come 
to  see  us."  The  single  word  come  is  selected  for  the 
first  practice.  A  type  lesson  fully  illustrating  the  class 
procedure  will  be  found  on  pages  218  to  219. 

Should  the  formation  of  some  letter  in  the  word  upon 
which  the  child  is  practicing  prove  difficult,  the  entire 
period  may  be  spent  in  practice  on  this  one  letter.  How- 
ever, a  lesson  period   should  not  be  given  to   subject- 


Handwriting  213 


matter  of  this  nature  unless  the  need  for  this  practice 
has  been  developed  with  the  child. 

A  child  below  the  age  of  ten  years  should  not  be  given 
movements  which  require  precision,  steadiness,  complex- 
ity in  adjustment,  or  rapidity  in  execution.  To  aid  in 
avoiding  these  dangers  it  will  be  found  much  better  to 
have  all  writing  for  the  first  few  months  done  on  the 
blackboard,  and  on  rather  a  large  scale.  Writing  in  the 
air  will  also  be  helpful. 

The  first  work  at  the  seat  should  be  on  unruled  paper 
and  the  child  should  be  encouraged  to  write  in  a  large 
hand.  All  new  forms  should  be  made  on  the  board  and 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  teacher.  In  the  early 
lessons  if  the  child  makes  a  mistake,  the  teacher  should 
erase  the  form  and  have  him  rewrite  it.  Later,  he  should 
study  the  correct  form  and  then  compare  his  with  it,  thus 
learning  to  discover  his  own  error. 

In  the  child's  writing  the  teacher  should  strive  first 
for  correct  movement,  position,  and  legibility.  Later  he 
may  gain  the  necessary  speed  and  beauty  of  form  through 
practice. 

Standard.  A  standard  by  which  to  measure  the 
child's  writing  progress  is  helpful.  It  may  be  used  also 
in  arousing  his  interest  in  overcoming  the  mistakes  in 
his  writing  and  in  improving  his  record.  By  comparing 
his  work  with  the  standard  he  can  be  trained  to  discover 
where  the  difficulty  is  and  how  to  correct  it.  The  de- 
veloping of  the  ability  to  depend  upon  oneself  is  in- 
valuable. 

Following  is  a  reproduction  of  a  scale  which  may  be 
used  in  grading  the  child's  writing. 

This  measuring  scale  can  be  secured  from  the  Russell 
Sage  Foundation,  New  York.     Should  this  scale  be  used 


214 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


in  the  second  grade  it  is  suggested  that  20  be  added  to 
each  per  cent  and  if  used  in  a  third  grade  that  15  be 
added. 


MEASURING  SCALE  FOR  HANDWRITING 


THE  LESSON  PLAN 


The  writing  lesson  is  essentially  a  habit-forming  les- 
son, consequently,  it  will  conform  to  the  principles  gov- 
erning the  drill  lesson.  These  may  be  enumerated  as 
(1)  a  motive;  (2)  a  clear  idea  of  the  thing  to  be  drilled 
on;  (3)  attentive  repetition;  (4)  no  exceptions;  (5)  re- 
views; (6)  application. 

1.  Motive.  That  the  child  may  be  interested  in 
learning  to  write,  it  is  essential  that  he  see  the  reason  for 
it  and  that  he  feel  the  need  for  it.  The  teacher  should 
arouse  his  desire  to  communicate  his  thought  through 
written  language,  for  if  he  is  interested  in  this  expression 
he  will  want  to  learn  how  to  write  and  will  be  willing  to 
make  the  effort  necessary  for  its  accomplishment.  He 
should  also  be  made  to  realize  that  poor  writing  is  likely 
to  result  in  misunderstanding. 

The  pictorial  representation  of  ideas,  the  writing  of 
letters  to  real  people,  and  the  writing  of  stories  or  poems 
which  are  to  be  read  to  some  one  should  furnish  practical 
problems  and  motives  for  writing. 


Handwriting  215 


The  little  game  of  "Deaf  and  Dumb"  in  which  the 
child  pretends  that  he  cannot  talk  but  must  write  will 
furnish  endless  subject-matter  and  motive  for  learning 
to  write.  A  list  of  questions  to  be  used  in  the  game  to- 
gether with  the  answers  may  be  compiled  by  the  class. 
For  example,  "What  is  your  name?  How  old  are  you? 
What  do  you  like  to  play?"  Then  before  the  game  may 
be  played  he  must  learn  to  write  some  of  these  questions 
;.nd  answers. 

The  filling  in  of  the  blanks  in  the  puzzle  sentences  is 
another  source  of  subject-matter  and  motive  for  the 
writing  lessons.     In  the  sentence,   "I   see   a  big  white 

,"  the  child's  aim  is  to  learn  to  write  the  word 

bear  so  he  may  fill  in  the  sentence.  A  list  may  be  com- 
piled for  use  in  this  game  as  in  the  "Deaf  and  Dumb" 
game. 

Other  sources  of  motive  are  rivalry,  approval  of  teacher 
or  parent,  admiration  of  his  companions,  reward,  and 
fear  of  punishment. 

2.  Clear  Idea  Problem.  Before  beginning  to  repro- 
duce the  form,  the  child  must  have  a  clear  idea  of  what 
is  to  be  done,  and  how  to  do  it.  He  should  be  encouraged 
to  watch  the  teacher  make  the  form  again  and  again. 
His  problem  should  be  the  necessary  control  and  co- 
ordination of  the  muscles.  This  clear  idea  of  what  is  to 
be  done  cannot  be  over-emphasized,  for  a  child  often 
stumbles  and  fails  because  he  does  not  know  what  is  ex- 
pected of  him.  Then  if  he  makes  a  mistake  the  teacher's 
task  is  much  greater  than  it  was  before,  for  the  impulse 
to  make  the  wrong  form  and  movement  must  be  over- 
come before  the  right  habits  can  be  established.  Much 
more  will  be  accomplished  when  the  teacher  allows  the 
emphasis  to  be  on  what  she  wants  done,  rather  than  on 


216  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

what  she  does  not  want  done.  Of  course  the  exception  to 
this  rule  will  be  when  the  child  has  formed  an  incorrect 
habit  of  either  form  or  movement.  When  one  of  these 
mistakes  is  discovered  it  should  be  pointed  out  and  special 
practice  given  on  the  right  habit.  This  will  call  for  both 
class  and  individual  instruction. 

3.  Attentive  Repetition.  Learning  to  write  is  a 
matter  of  practice  or  repetition  of  correct  movement, 
therefore  after  the  child  has  an  interesting  motive  and  a 
clear  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done,  the  teacher's  problem 
will  be  to  keep  his  interest  and  attention  while  the  needed 
repetition  is  being  carried  forward.  Repetition  is  largely 
wasted  time  unless  accompanied  by  concentrated  atten- 
tion. As  a  small  child  gives  attention  to  a  thing  for  only 
a  short  time,  it  will  be  best  to  have  short  drill  periods. 
Two  or  three  short  drills,  when  he  is  fresh  and  will  give 
his  full  attention,  will  accomplish  fifty  per  cent  more  than 
one  long  period  when  he  is  tired  and  listless. 

Variety  in  procedure  will  do  much  toward  holding  the 
attention  of  the  class.  For  example,  if  the  child  is  prac- 
ticing on  the  oval,  the  teacher  should  pretend  one  day 
that  he  is  making  a  little  girl's  curl,  on  another  day 
a  drawn-out  spring. 

4.  No  Exception.  If  the  repetition  is  to  be  worth 
while  it  must  be  the  repetition  of  the  desired  response 
and  not  that  of  error.  The  child  should  be  trained  to 
discover  the  points  where  the  improvements  should  be 
made,  and  to  avoid  repetition  of  an  error.  In  order  to 
avoid  repetition  of  error  it  would  seem  best  for  all  writ- 
ing to  be  confined  to  the  writing  period  or  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  the  teacher  until  the  correct  writ- 
ing habits  are  firmly  fixed. 

Error  may  also  creep  in  by  having  the  writing  period 


Handwriting  217 


at  a  time  when  the  child  is  either  physically  tired  or  has 
been  indulging  in  strenuous  physical  exercise. 

5.  Reviews.  In  writing,  as  in  spelling,  the  teacher 
must  plan  for  frequent  reviews  of  the  work  gone  over. 
This  will  be  much  easier  in  writing,  as  the  child's  written 
vocabulary  will  develop  slowly  and  will  be  very  limited 
in  scope.  The  teacher  cannot  count  her  task  of  teaching 
writing  as  completed  until  the  child  can  give  his  entire 
attention  to  the  thought  which  he  is  expressing.  The 
mechanics  of  writing  should  be  automatic  and  at  the 
same  time  accurate,  legible,  and  rapid. 

6.  Application.  If  the  interest  of  the  child  is  prop- 
erly maintained,  the  skill  gained  through  the  drill  should 
always  end  in  the  step  of  application.  If  he  is  learning 
to  write  an  invitation,  the  drill  should  end  in  the  writing 
of  an  actual  invitation.  It  may  take  one  week,  two 
weeks,  or  three  weeks  to  complete  the  practice  on  the 
necessary  words,  but  the  application  should  always  be 
the  final  step. 

The  following  outline  will  be  suggestive  of  the  steps 
taken  in  a  writing  lesson : 

Lesson  Outline,  a.  Rhythmic  movements  in  the 
form  of  ovals,  push-pull,  etc.,  should  be  used  as  a  prepa- 
ration for  all  writing  lessons.  This  will  limber  up  the 
muscles  and  result  in  regularity  of  movement. 

b.  The  teacher  writes  the  subject-matter,  after  its  de- 
velopment, on  the  board  in  a  clear  hand,  the  children 
observing.  She  should  make  an  opportunity  to  write  it 
several  times. 

c.  The  child  writes  in  the  air  as  the  teacher  writes  on 
the  board.  She  should  count  or  give  descriptive  phrases 
as  the  form  is  made  in  order  to  bring  in  the  rhythmic 
movement. 


218  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


d.  She  then  has  individual  children  to  write  on  the 
board.  In  the  event  of  a  mistake  she  has  the  child  to 
compare  his  work  with  the  copy. 

e.  In  the  second  or  third  grades  she  has  the  worcl 
or  sentence  written  on  paper.  If  the  material  is  suitable 
she  should  have  rhythmic  counting. 

f.  Application.  The  word  or  sentence  is  added  to 
the  letter,  story,  or  poem  which  the  child  is  writing,  or 
he  is  allowed  to  play  the  game. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSON 

First  Grade 

I.  Topic:    Rhythmic  motion  of  the  pendulum. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  train  the  child  to 
rhythmic  motion.  (2)  To  develop  muscular  control. 
(3)  To  train  him  to  represent  his  ideas  through  pictorial 
drawings. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  make  the  motion  of  the 
pendulum  as  the  teacher  phrases  it.  (2)  To  make  the 
picture  of  the  motion  of  the  pendulum  as  the  teacher 
phrases  it. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

"How  can  you  tell  when  it  is  time 
Tick-tock  to  come  tQ  scjj00i  ?    Have  any  of  you 

tick-tock  a  ^g  ciock?     Did  you  ever  see  one 

with  a  pendulum?  What  does  the 
pendulum  do?  Show  me  how  it 
swings.  What  does  it  say?  Play 
that  your  hand  is  a  pendulum  and 
when  I  say  tick  let  it  swing  across, 
then   when   I    say   tock   let   it   swing 


Handwriting  219 


back.  Now  ready,  'Tick-tock,  tick- 
tock,  tick-tock'."  The  teacher  should 
continue  until  each  child  gets  the 
movement  and  has  learned  to  swing 
his  hand  to  the  phrasing.  The  phras- 
ing should  be  regular  and  rhythmic. 

"If  we  were  to  make  a  picture  of 
the  motion  of  the  pendulum,  how  do 
you  think  it  would  look?"  She  should 
encourage  the  children  to  represent 
their  ideas  on  the  board.  If  they  do 
not  have  the  true  idea  she  should 
show  them  how  it  should  look. 

"Mary  may  come  and  make  the 
picture  as  I  tell  what  the  pendulum 
says.  The  rest  of  us  will  make  it  in 
the  air."  She  should  continue  by 
allowing  different  children  to  make 
the  movement  with  the  chalk. 

First  Grade.  This  same  general  plan  should  be  fol- 
lowed in  a  second  or  third  grade. 

I.  Topic:    An  invitation. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  give  the  child  a  defi- 
nite motive  for  learning  to  write.  (2)  To  insure  accu- 
racy of  form  by  giving  him  a  vivid  image  of  the  word. 
(3)  To  form  the  correct  habits  of  writing.  (4)  To 
train  him  to  write  correctly  and  beautifully. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  write  an  invitation  to 
his  mother.  (2)  To  practice  on  come  until  he  can  make 
it  correctly  and  beautifully.  (3)  To  discover  the  rhyth- 
mic phrasing  for  writing  come. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1.  A  review  of  the  "How  did  we  make  the  picture  of 
direct   oval   through   the     the     children     turning     the     rope? 


220 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


pictorial  drawing  of  the 
rope. 

2.  The  indirect  oval 
through  the  rhyme  of 
Jack  be  Nimble. 


James  may  come  and  make  the  pic- 
ture on  the  board  while  we  make  it 
in  the  air.  Ready.  'Turn,  turn, 
turn,  turn.'"  This  should  be  con- 
tinued for  a  short  time.  "Let  us 
make  a  picture  of  the  way  Jack 
jumped  as  we  repeated  the  rhyme." 
The  teacher  has  the  children  repeat 
the  rhyme  as  they  make  the  move- 
ment. 

"Wouldn't  you  like  to  have  Mother 
come  to  visit  us?  Suppose  we  invite 
her?  How  shall  we  do  it?  Don't 
you  think  she  will  feel  more  as  though 
she  were  invited  if  we  send  her  a 
written  invitation?  What  shall  we 
say?  Yes,  'Come  to  see  us.'  I  will 
write  it  here  on 'the  board.  What  is 
the  first  word?  Suppose  we  practice 
on  this  word  until  we  can  write  it  so 
that  it  looks  neat.  Watch  me  write 
it  and  see  if  you  can  discover  any 
part  of  the  picture  of  the  turning  of 
the  rope."  She  writes  come  in  large 
script.  "Did  you  see  it?  Come  and 
show  me  which  part  it  was.  Watch 
me  write  come  again  and  see  if  you 
see  any  part  that  is  made  like  the 
picture  of  Jack  jumping  the  candle- 
stick." She  writes  come  and  has  the 
children  select  the  familiar  part. 
"Watch  me  write  come  again  and 
see  what  rhythmic  exercises  the  last 
letter  reminds  you  of."  The  last  let- 
ter is  the  movement  used  in  the  turn- 
ing of  the  rope.  "Suppose  we  say 
round,  up,  round,  jump,  jump,  jump, 
turn"  The  teacher  writes  on  the 
board  as  she  phrases  the  word.    The 


Handwriting  221 


word  has  now  been  written  five  times, 
and  the  children  have  had  the  op- 
portunity to  get  a  very  fair  mental 
image  of  its  form  and  of  the  move- 
ment used  in  making  it.  They  are 
now  ready  to  begin  the  actual  work 
of  reproducing  the  written  form  of 
the  word. 

"Boys  and  girls,  suppose  we  play 
that  you  are  writing  the  word  in  the 
air  as  I  write  it  on  the  board.  See 
if  you  can  make  it  as  I  count  it. 
Now,  let  us  see  if  you  can  count  it 
as  we  make  it  again.  I  want  some 
one  to  write  come  on  the  board  while 
the  rest  of  us  write  it  in  the  air." 
The  practice  on  the  word  is  contin- 
ued. The  work  is  varied  by  having 
two  or  three  of  the  children  come  to 
the  board  at  the  same  time.  If  any 
letter  in  the  word  should  prove  dif- 
ficult, she  should  say  to-  the  class, 
"We  seem  to  be  having  trouble  with 
o,  suppose  we  practice  on  it  alone 
until  we  can  make  it,  for  it  spoils  the 
looks  of  come  to  have  a  bad  looking 
o."  A  single  letter  or  word  should 
never  be  taken  for  practice  without 
some  definite  reason  or  need. 

After  enough  board  work  to  insure  the  accurate  form- 
ing of  the  letters,  a  second  or  third  grade  should  be 
allowed  to  practice  on  paper.  The  teacher  should  insist 
on  correct  position  and  muscular  movement.  She  should 
insist  on  muscular  movement  in  all  lessons  where  writing 
is  used. 

As  the  child  gains  skill  in  writing,  he  may  practice  on 
more  than  one  word  in  a  lesson. 


222  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

The  practice  should  be  first  for  accuracy  in  form, 
then  for  beauty,  then  for  speed.  The  teacher  should 
not  make  the  mistake  of  going  too  fast  or  of  attempting 
too  much  in  a  lesson.  However,  the  subject-matter 
should  be  changed  often  enough  to  keep  the  work  inter- 
esting. 

In  the  second  and  third  grades  writing,  spelling,  and 
written  language  may  be  correlated  in  a  very  effective 
manner.  When  the  exercise  is  written  there  should  be 
a  preliminary  exercise  in  rhythmic  movement,  then  in 
the  writing  of  the  words  or  sentence  the  teacher  should 
stress  form,  movement,  and  position. 

REFERENCES 

Freeman,  The  Teaching  of  Handwriting 
Gesell,  The  Normal  Child  and  Primary  Education 
Lister,  Handwriting  for  the  Primary  Grades 
Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 
Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 
Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 
Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  To  Teach 
Lincoln,  Everyday  Pedagogy 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SPELLING 

AIM 

The  purpose  in  teaching  spelling  is  to  enable  the  child 
to  communicate  his  thoughts  accurately  through  the 
medium  of  written  language. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

As  there  are  something  like  600,000  words  in  the 
English  language  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  child 
will  learn  to  spell  the  entire  list.  The  question  of  the 
selection  of  words  for  the  spelling  lesson  is  an  impor- 
tant one. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  poor  results  attained  in  spelling 
are  due  to  the  poor  selection  of  words  making  up  the 
subject-matter  of  the  spelling  lesson  and  to  the  method 
or  lack  of  method  in  teaching  spelling.  If  the  criticism 
as  to  the  choice  of  words  is  well  founded,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  the  words  be  carefully  chosen.  When  we  recall 
that  the  purpose  in  teaching  spelling  is  to  enable  the  child 
to  express  himself  by  means  of  written  language,  we  are 
convinced  that  his  actual  needs  should  be  the  basis  of 
selection. 

The  recognition  of  the  importance  of  this  factor  has 
resulted  in  the  elimination  of  much  useless  subject-matter. 
The  day  of  isolated,  unrelated  lists  of  words  is  past,  and 

223 


224  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


also  the  day  of  imposing  spelling  upon  the  child  in  such 
a  way  that  he  feels  that  it  is  a  subject  for  which  he  has 
little  use.  The  spelling  of  today  is  an  interesting  sub- 
ject, one  for  which  he  feels  the  need — one  in  which  he 
has  a  personal  interest. 

The  problem,  then,  is  to  teach  the  child  to  spell  the 
words  which  he  needs  in  his  written  work.  There  are 
three  sources  from  which  spelling  lists  may  be  compiled. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  spelling  book.  In  using  this  the 
teacher  should  be  careful  to  see  that  the  words  are  those 
which  are  suitable  to  a  child's  written  vocabulary,  since 
the  teaching  of  unusual  words  is  a  great  waste  of  valu- 
able time.  Another  source  is  the  grade  reader.  Here, 
too,  the  teacher  should  use  discrimination  in  choosing, 
keeping  in  mind  the  daily  written  vocabulary  of  the 
child.  His  reading  vocabulary  is  of  much  wider  scope 
than  his  written  vocabulary,  and  it  is  a  pernicious  waste 
of  time  and  energy  to  attempt  to  teach  him  to  spell  all 
the  new  words  in  his  reading  lessons.  The  third  and  the 
most  valuable  source  is  the  daily  written  work  of  the 
child.  Here,  without  any  question,  will  be  found  the 
words  which  he  needs  to  know  how  to  write.  The 
teacher  should  carefully  watch  all  his  written  work, 
making  a  list  of  the  words  which  must  be  spelled  for  him 
or  words  which  he  misspells.  This  would  be  the  ideal 
list  for  his  spelling  lesson. 

Because  of  the  necessity  for  some  system  in  courses 
of  study,  many  teachers  will  find  it  better  to  have  a  care- 
fully and  scientifically  graded  spelling  book  as  a  guide, 
supplementing  this  with  a  list  made  up  from  the  written 
work  of  the  class.  The  Jones  Primary  Speller  published 
by  the  Capital  Publishing  Co.,  Pierre,  S.  Dak.,  is  a  book 
which  has  been  compiled  according  to  the  modern  prin- 


Spelling  225 


ciples  of  teaching  spelling  and  should  prove  helpful  to 
the  teacher. 

In  using  a  text  the  teacher  should  furnish  the  child 
with  the  experience  that  will  bring  these  words  into  his 
vocabulary,  and  then  make  the  writing  of  these  words 
the  desire  to  express  these  experiences  through  writing. 

Standard.  A  better  type  of  work  can  be  done  if  there 
is  a  standard  by  which  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  the 
class  in  spelling.  Such  a  standard  has  been  worked  out 
by  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres.  The  following  quotation  is 
taken  from  this  standard :  "The  data  of  this  scale  are 
computed  from  an  aggregate  of  1,400,000  spellings  by 
70,000  children  in  84  cities  throughout  the  country.  The 
words  are  1,000  in  number  and  the  list  is  the  product  of 
combining  different  studies  with  the  object  of  identifying 
the  1,000  commonest  words  in  English  writing.' ' 

Copies  of  this  scale  may  be  obtained  for  five  cents 
each.  Copies  of  the  monograph  describing  the  investi- 
gation which  produced  it  may  be  obtained  for  thirty 
cents  each.  Address  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  Divi- 
sion of  Education,  130  East  22d  St.,  New  York  City. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY 

A  contention  which  has  caused  considerable  dis- 
cussion refers  to  the  time  when  formal  spelling  should 
be  introduced.  Practically  all  agree  that  it  should 
not  begin  in  the  first  grade  though  some  would  place 
it  in  the  second  grade,  others  in  the  third  grade. 
Almost  all  modern  writers  agree  in  saying  that  it  should 
not  be  introduced  until  the  need  for  it  arises.  The  delay 
of  written  composition  work  and  of  penmanship  post- 
pones the  need  for  it.  It  should  be  introduced  as  soon 
as  the  need  for  written  expression  appears. 


226  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

* 

The  following  course  of  study  is  not  given  as  a  set 
course  but  only  as  suggestions  of  what  may  be  developed 
by  the  teacher. 

First  Grade.  No  formal  work  is  done  in  spelling, 
though  in  reality  a  child  begins  to  spell  when  he  copies 
his  first  word.  From  the  first  the  teacher  should  see 
that  this  is  accurately  done.  She  should  not  call  atten- 
tion, however,  to  the  separate  letters  but  in  case  of  error, 
erase  the  word  and  have  it  rewritten.  In  this  way  he  is 
trained  to  study  the  word  as  a  whole,  which  is  the  end 
desired  in  these  early  lessons.  Later  he  may  be  told  that 
he  has  made  certain  letters  incorrectly.  When  he  learns 
to  write  the  simple  invitation  in  his  writing  lesson,  he  is 
learning  to  spell;  likewise,  in  all  the  other  subject- 
matter  used  in  the  writing  period. 

Second  Grade.  The  words  necessary  to  write  a  let- 
ter of  invitation  to  parents  or  friends  to  visit  the  school, 
a  letter  to  an  absent  classmate,  a  letter  to  the  same  grade 
of  another  school,  an  invitation  to  a  class  party,  an  invita- 
tion to  go  on  a  nature  or  bird  walk,  a  note  of  thanks  for 
some  favor  as,  the  gift  of  a  flower  or  book,  words  neces- 
sary to  play  the  game  of  "Deaf  and  Dumb,"  words  nec- 
essary to  play  the  puzzle  game.  If  a  book  is  used  these 
words  may  be  used  in  the  exercises  suggested  above. 
This  may  be  done  without  reference  to  the  order  of 
words  suggested  in  the  book. 

Third  Grade.  The  work  of  the  second  grade  is 
continued  except  that  it  will  be  more  extensive ;  words  for 
short  compositions  on  nature  study  topics;  words  for 
written  reproductions  of  simple  stories ;  if  a  book  is  used 
the  words  should  be  woven  into  the  exercises  suggested 
above. 


Spelling  227 


LESSON  PLANS 

The  central  problem  in  the  teaching  of  spelling  is  to 
teach  the  child  to  write  the  letters  of  the  word  in  a 
certain  order  and  to  do  this  automatically  so  that  the 
mind  may  be  entirely  given  to  the  thought.  Learning  to 
spell  is  simply  a  matter  of  forming  a  habit — the  habit  of 
using  letters  in  a  certain  order. 

In  spelling,  as  in  other  habit-forming  lessons,  there 
must  be  intelligently  conducted  drill  if  the  child  acquires 
the  ability  to  write  the  word  when  he  needs  it  without 
stopping  to  think  how  it  is  spelled. 

The  principles  or  steps  in  the  lesson  will  be  (1)  a 
motive  for  learning  the  words;  (2)  a  clear  idea  of  cor- 
rect response;  (3)  attentive  repetition  of  the  response; 
(4)  no  exceptions;  (5)  frequent  review  of  the  words; 
and  (6)  application  of  the  habit  of  response  to  practical 
problems. 

1.  Motive.  The  teacher  should  see,  first  of  all,  that 
the  child  is  interested  in  learning  to  spell,  and  that  the 
conditions  are  such  that  he  has  a  motive  for  the  study  of 
the  word.  The  stronger  the  motive  or  the  incentive  the 
more  close  will  be  the  attention  and  the  sooner  will  the 
desired  result  be  obtained. 

Much  of  the  drill  work  in  spelling  is  barren  of  result 
because  the  child  sees  neither  the  need  nor  the  signifi- 
cance of  learning  to  spell.  So  one  of  the  problems  of  the 
teacher  is  to  motivate  the  work  properly  for  him. 

The  motive  should  be  strong  enough  and  attractive 
enough  to  appeal  to  the  child  and  to  secure  his  attention 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  There  are  various 
sources  for  motivation.  The  most  important  is  the  real- 
ization of  the  practical  need  for  the  ability  to  spell  the 
words ;  for  instance,  so  that  he  can  write  letters,  stories, 


228  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


compositions ;  play  the  game  of  "Deaf  and  Dumb,"  where 
he  must  write  instead  of  talk;  or  fill  in  words  of  puzzle 
sentences.  It  is  suggested  that  if  the  child  is  interested 
in  his  written  work  he  will  want  to  learn  to  spell  the 
words  which  are  necessary  to  this  written  expression. 
And  if  he  fully  realizes  that  he  is  to  be  judged  by  his 
ability  to  write  correctly,  he  will  realize  that  when  he 
cannot  spell  a  word  he  ought  to  learn  it  at  once. 

Variety  in  procedure  is  one  of  the  best  ways  to  attract 
and  hold  the  attention  and  interest  of  the  child.  A 
promised  spelling  match  will  often  secure  concentrated 
attention  and  effort  on  the  part  of  the  class.  A  pupil 
will  often  work  to  improve  his  own  record.  The  pupil's 
record  may  be  kept  on  a  score  card  and  instantly  checked 
up. 

Another  means  for  securing  the  interest  and  attention 
is  that  of  emulation,  or  the  desire  to  excel  others.  This 
is  the  lowest  type  of  all  the  motives,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  fear  of  punishment,  and  should  be  used 
only  very  occasionally. 

2.  Clear  Idea  of  Response.  In  this  as  in  other  habit- 
forming  lessons,  the  first  step  is  to  help  the  child  to  form 
a  clear  idea  of  the  thing  to  be  done.  In  order  to  make 
the  spelling  of  the  word  easy  and  natural,  the  teacher 
should  see  that  he  hears  the  word  correctly  and  that  he 
has  a  clear,  accurate  picture  of  it.  He  should  be  en- 
couraged to  look  again  and  again  at  the  word  until  its 
image  becomes  firmly  fixed.  Many  errors  in  spelling 
are  due  to  faulty  pronunciation  and  faulty  visualization 
of  the  word.  The  ability  to  spell  includes  more  than  the 
power  to  reproduce  the  letters  of  a  word  in  a  given 
order.  It  involves  the  ability  to  pronounce  the  word  and 
to  give  its  meaning.    A  word  is  never  well  taught  unless 


Spelling  229 


the  teacher  makes  sure  that  the  child  has  its  meaning, 
its  pronunciation,  and  its  spelling. 

In  a  discussion  of  the  modern  method  of  conducting  a 
spelling  lesson,  Suzzallo1  says,  "The  teacher  spends  his 
time  in  carefully  presenting  a  few  words,  rather  than  in 
examining  the  child's  ability  in  many.  New  work  is  a 
matter  of  class  study,  where  words  are  presented  with 
unusual  artfulness  in  order  to  suggest  their  meaning 
naturally  through  circumstance  or  context.  Every  effort 
is  made  to  safeguard  the  child  against  a  wrong  first  im- 
pression and  an  incorrect  learning  of  the  word.  If  a 
home  lesson  is  assigned,  it  is  not  a  mere  blocking  out  of 
a  number  of  words  to  be  learned;  the  assignment  is  an 
exercise  in  which  the  teacher  uses  all  his  foresight  in 
anticipating  the  various  kinds  of  trouble  the  child  will 
meet,  focusing  the  attention  on  special  difficulties  and 
suggesting  modes  of  self-instruction.  The  modern  spell- 
ing exercise  may  test  the  child's  knowledge,  but  its 
primary  function  is  to  teach  rather  than  to  examine." 

3.  '  Attentive  Repetition.  After  the  child  has  a  proper 
motive,  a  clear  idea  of  what  is  to  be  done,  the  teacher 
should  plan  how  to  further  the  multiplicity  of  associa- 
tions necessary  for  the  learning  of  the  word.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  most  economical  method  of  learning  to 
spell  a  word  requires  that  the  entire  attention  be  given 
while  the  letters  of  the  word  are  repeated  and  written  a 
number  of  times.  Multiplicity  of  association  is  brought 
about  through  writing  the  word  on  the  board,  in  the  air, 
on  paper,  spelling  it  aloud,  spelling  it  under  the  breath, 
etc.  By  this  plan  the  eye  sees,  the  ear  hears,  the  voice 
reproduces,  and  the  hand  copies  the  word. 

If  each  word  is  to  be  thus  carefully  studied  it  will  of 


!The   Teaching-   of   Spelling. 


230  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

necessity  have  to  be  a  supervised  study,  for  undirected 
effort  will  result  in  random  effort.  And  furthermore, 
all  the  words  of  a  list  will  not  require  the  same  amount 
of  study.  Some  of  them  can  probably  be  spelled  with- 
out many  repetitions,  while  others  will  require  the  most 
careful  study.  It  is  the  work  of  the  teacher  to  train  the 
children  to  recognize  the  words  that  will  present  diffi- 
culties and  to  train  them  to  overcome  these  difficulties. 

4.  No  Exceptions.  As  suggested  in  the  above  quota- 
tion the  teacher  tries  in  every  way  to  get  rid  of  error  by 
anticipating  and  preventing  it  through  supervised  study. 
The  efficient  teacher  will  train  her  class  to  avoid  making 
errors  in  so  far  as  possible.  The  trial-and-error  method 
belongs  to  the  old  order  of  teaching  spelling.  The  teacher 
of  the  present  day  realizes  that  if  the  child  makes  a 
mistake,  her  task  is  much  greater  than  it  was,  for  this 
wrong  way  of  spelling  the  word  must  be  overcome  before 
the  right  habit  can  be  established.  The  child  should  be 
trained  never  to  write  a  word  or  to  attempt  to  write  it 
unless  he  is  sure  he  knows  how  to  spell  it.  In  case  of 
error,  a  new  chain  of  associations  must  be  formed  be- 
ginning with  the  pronunciation  and  leading  through  the 
meaning  to  the  correct,  written  form,  leaving  the  incorrect 
associations  to  fade  away. 

5.  Reviews.  In  spelling  as  in  the  other  drill  lessons, 
opportunity  should  be  given  for  frequent  reviews,  for 
when  the  teacher  has  first  succeeded  in  securing  the 
desired  result,  she  has  only  begun  the  process.  If  the 
child  is  to  make  the  correct  spelling  of  a  word  a  per- 
manent part  of  his  mental  equipment,  he  must  write  or 
spell  the  word  several  times  during  the  next  few  days, 
write  it  over  and  over  again  the  next  week,  the  next 
month,  the  next  year.     The  time  will  come  when  the 


Spelling 231 

word  is  indelibly  fixed  in  the  child's  mind,  and  then,  and 
only  then,  can  the  teacher  discontinue  the  drill  on  the 
word.  If  it  is  necessary  for  a  child  to  learn  to  spell  a 
word,  it  is  not  only  necessary  for  him  to  be  able  to  spell 
it  when  it  is  assigned  as  a  new  word,  but  it  is  necessary 
that  he  be  able  to  spell  it  ever  afterward,  wherever  he 
may  encounter  it. 

Testing.  In  the  old  method  of  teaching  spelling,  the 
testing  occupied  the  larger  part  of  the  recitation  period, 
but  in  the  modern  method  it  is  only  a  step  in  the  lesson. 
As  teachers  are  coming  more  and  more  to  the  teaching  of 
the  words  which  the  child  needs  in  his  daily  written  work, 
it  is  possible  to  test  his  ability  to  spell  in  sentences.  How- 
ever, the  only  test  is  the  spontaneous  written  expression 
of  the  child. 

6.  Application.  If  spelling  is  to  continue  to  appeal  to 
the  child  as  a  practical  subject,  the  teacher  should  plan 
many  exercises  for  its  application.  Not  only  does  this 
make  the  subject  vital  for  him  but  it  helps  to  fix  the 
words  in  mind.  It  is  also  the  truest  test  of  his  efficiency 
in  spelling. 

One  of  the  teacher's  problems  will  be  to  provide 
enough  natural  opportunities  for  this  application.  These 
may  be  found  in  letters  written  to  friends,  absent  play- 
mates, or  to  children  in  another  school;  in  compositions 
based  on  nature  study  topics;  the  written  reproduction 
of  the  stories  which  are  to  be  read  or  sent  to  parents  or 
friends,  in  the  game  of  "Deaf  and  Dumb,"  and  in  puzzle 
sentences. 

Devices.  In  spelling,  a  list  of  words  known  as  a  black 
list  will  prove  helpful.  This  list  is  kept  in  a  con- 
spicuous place  on  the  board.  Any  word  which  is  mis- 
spelled by  a  number  of  children  is  placed  on  this  list. 


232  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


They  are  encouraged  to  eliminate  words  from  this  list 
as  rapidly  as  possible. 

In  addition  each  child  should  have  a  personal  list 
which  he  may  keep  in  a  small  blank  book.  To  this  list 
should  be  added  any  word  which  he  misses  or  which  he 
has  to  have  spelled  for  him.  He  should  be  tested  fre- 
quently on  this  list. 

Outline  of  Steps  in  a  Lesson.  The  following  outline 
for  conducting  the  spelling  lesson  should  contain  much 
that  is  helpful  in  way  of  suggestions.  This  outline  may 
be  modified  or  added  to  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
class.  The  varying  difficulty  of  the  words  should  also 
affect  the  outline. 

The  change  wrought  in  the  teaching  of  spelling  has 
had  its  effect  on  the  number  of  words  assigned  each  day. 
It  is  the  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  two  to  four 
new  words  a  lesson  should  be  assigned  in  the  primary 
grades. 

I.  Motive:  The  child's  interest  is  aroused  in  learn- 
ing to  write  the  word. 

II.  Teaching  Method  (to  be  applied  to  each  individual 
word)  : 

a.  The  pronunciation  and  meaning  of  the  word  is 
developed  in  connection  with  the  child's  motive  for 
learning  to  write  it. 

b.  Write  the  word  slowly  on  the  board,  the  class 
following  visually  the  formation  of  the  letters.  Write 
the  word  compactly. 

c.  Divide  the  word  into  syllables,  orally,  and  then 
write  it  in  syllables.  Call  on  individuals  to  pronounce 
and  then  spell  orally  by  syllables.  Pronounce  by  sylla- 
bles only  when  necessary  to  make  it  clear. 

d.  Have  pupils  to  point  out   familiar  parts  of  the 


Spelling  233 


word  such  as  phonograms  or  smaller  words  included  in 
it.  Then  have  them  point  out  the  new  or  unfamiliar 
parts.  Lead  the  class  to  study  the  word  to  see  which  are 
the  difficult  parts.  Have  the  pupils  close  the  eyes  and 
visualize  the  different  parts. 

e.  Have  the  pupils  write  the  word  in  the  air  as  you 
write  it  on  the  board.  Then  have  them  write  it  on  the 
board  or  on  paper.  Have  them  pronounce  and  softly 
spell  the  word  as  they  write.  This  should  be  under  the 
breath. 

f.  Allow  the  class  a  moment  in  which  to  look  at  the 
word  again,  then  have  them  close  their  eyes  and  visualize 
it. 

III.  Reviewing  (when  drilling  for  impression)  : 

a.  After  the  words  of  the  new  lesson  have  been  taught 
as  above,  allow  a  few  minutes  for  studying  the  whole 
list  again,  suggesting  that  each  pupil  emphasize  the  word 
or  words  which  he  thinks  he  does  not  know.  The  time 
should  be  limited  so  that  each  pupil  will  concentrate 
vigorously. 

b.  Call  on  pupils  individually,  and  at  times  in  concert, 
to  spell  the  entire  list  as  dictated  without  looking  at  the 
board.    Refer  them  to  the  board  at  once  if  they  hesitate. 

IV.  Testing: 

a.  Erase  all  the  words  from  the  board  and  dictate 
them  to  the  class  for  a  written  test,  using  each  in  a  sen- 
tence. It  will  be  well  to  have  the  entire  sentence  written 
if  it  contains  no  new  words.  If  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
sensible  sentence,  bring  in  the  words  which  the  children 
need  for  review.  Insist  that  no  child  attempt  to  write  a 
word  unless  he  is  sure  he  can  spell  it. 

b.  Dictate  review  words  to  class. 

c.  To  check  the  work,  write  the  words  or  sentences  on 


234  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

the  board  and  have  each  child  compare  his  work  with 
the  model. 

d.  Words  that  are  misspelled  are  placed  on  the  black 
list  or  on  the  individual  lists. 

V.     Assignment.     Only  review  words. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSON 

Second  or  Third  Grades 

I.  Topic:    bird,  red,  robin. 

II.  Teacher's  Motive:  ( 1 )  To  give  the  child  a  motive 
for  learning  to  spell  bird,  red,  robin.  (2)  To  give  him 
a  clear  picture  of  each  word  and  to  help  him  to  reproduce 
it  in  writing. 

III.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  learn  to  write  bird,  red, 
and  robin  so  that  he  may  fill  out  the  puzzle  sentence. 

IV.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

The  teacher  should  give  about  two 
minutes    to    some    of    the    rhythmic 
movements  used  in  writing.  Through- 
out the  lesson  she  should  insist  upon 
correct  position,  form,  and  movement. 
"Boys  and  girls,   do  you   ever  try 
As  I  came  to  school  I      to  fill  in  puzzle  sentences?    I  have  a 
saw  a  (bird).    It  had  a      puzzle  here  and  I  want  to  see  if  you 
(red)   breast.     It  was  a      can  guess  what  the  words  are  which 
(robin).  I  have  left  out."     The  children   are 

allowed  to  study  and  discuss  the  sen- 
tences until  the  correct  words  are 
found.  "Would  you  like  to  write 
these  sentences  and  fill  in  the  blank? 
If  you  do  that,  we  shall  have  to  learn 
to  write  bird,  red,  and  robin;  then  I 
will  let  you  fill  out  the  puzzle  and 
carry  it  home  to  your  mother." 


Spelling  235 


"Watch  me  write  bird  on  the  board. 
Sound  it  for  me.  How  many  sounds  ? 
Which  two  letters  make  one  sound? 
Have  we  had  this  sound  before?  Let 
us  spell  bird.  Pronounce  each  letter 
as  I  point  at  it."  The  teacher  has  it 
spelled  twice  in  concert.  'This  time 
I  want  you  to  spell  it  as  I  make  each 
letter  on  the  board."  She  has  it 
spelled  by  several  children,  writing 
it  each  time.  In  this  way  the  children 
are  forming  a  vivid  image  of  the 
word.  "Now  you  write  the  word  in 
the  air  as  I  write  it  on  the  board, 
naming  the  letters  as  we  make  them." 
She  has  it  written  twice.  She  writes 
in  large  script.  "Each  of  you  take 
your  pencil  and  write  bird,  spelling 
°lf(f  it  softly  as  you  write. 

r°blt  "Now  turn  your  back  and  see   if 

™rd  you  can   spell  it  without  looking  at 

the  board.  If  you  are  not  sure,  look 
at  the  board  immediately,  for  we  do 
not  want  a  single  mistake  made. 

"Turn  your  paper  over  and  let  us 
see  if  you  can  write  bird  without 
looking  at  the  board.  If  you  are  not 
sure,  look  at  the  board,  as  we  do  not 
want  any  one  to  make  a  mistake." 

Red  should  be  studied  in  a  similar 
way. 

"What  kind  of  bird  did  I  see? 
Watch  me  write  robin.  How  many 
syllables  has  robin ?  Let  me  write  it, 
dividing  it  into  syllables.  Pronounce 
it  by  syllables.  Do  you  see  a  fa- 
miliar part  to  this  word?  Yes,  we 
have  had  in.  What  does  that  leave? 
Well,  rob  will  be  easy  to  learn,  won't 


236  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

it?"    Robin  is  studied  in  a  way  simi- 
lar to  that  used  in  studying  bird. 

"Which  of  these  words  do  you 
think  will  be  the  hardest?  I  want  you 
to  study  this  list  for  a  few  minutes, 
studying  the  hardest  word  the  long- 
est time,  and  then  I  will  see  if  you 
can  write  the  answer  to  the  puzzle." 
She  gives  the  children  a  few  minutes 
to  study.  After  this  she  takes  up  the 
practice  papers,  erases  the  words  from 
the  board,  and  has  the  children  copy 
the  sentences,  filling  in  the  blanks.  If 
the  teacher  has  more  than  one  grade 
this  may  be  the  seat-work  period. 
She  should  impress  on  .the  class  that 
she  does  not  want  them  to  try  to 
write  a  word  unless  they  are  sure  of 
it.  She  should  also  impress  the  fact 
that  the  only  honorable  thing  to  do 
in  a  case  like  this  is  to  ask  the  teach- 
er so  that  she  may  help  him  to  learn 
the  word.  It  would  be  a  terrible 
disgrace  to  copy  from  another  child's 
paper. 

REFERENCES 

Strayer,  A  Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process 

Earhart,  Types  in  Teaching 

Strayer  and  Norsworthy,  How  To  Teach 

Suzzallo,  The  Teaching  of  Spelling 

Circular  No.  14,  Richmond  Public  Schools,  Board  of  Education, 

Richmond,  Va. 
Charters,  Teaching  the  Common  Branches 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

HISTORY,  NATURE  STUDY,  AND 

GEOGRAPHY 

AIM 

History  and  Geography.  The  history  and  geography 
of  the  primary  grades  are  studies  of  the  home  life,  the 
community,  and  all  forms  of  allied  life.  Their  purpose  is 
to  socialize  the  child  by  leading  him  to  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  his  surroundings  and  of  his  part  in  this 
life.  He  is  by  nature  wholly  selfish  and  sees  the  world 
only  in  relation  to  himself.  If  he  is  conscious  of  the 
service  rendered  him,  he  takes  it  as  a  matter  of  course 
and  gives  nothing  in  return. 

Nature  Study  and  Geography.  Not  only  should  the 
child  be  led  to  recognize  the  interdependence  of  man 
upon  man  but  he  should  see  man's  dependence  for  suste- 
nance and  enjoyment  upon  other  forms  of  life.  In  these 
studies  he  should  be  led  to  see  how  the  earth  is  adapted 
to  man's  habitation  and  is  therefore  fitted  by  a  wise 
creator  to  be  his  home. 

Nature  Study  should  aim  to  develop  in  the  child  an 
intelligent  and  sympathetic  interest  in  the  world  about 
him  to  the  end  that  he  can  better  adjust  himself  to  his 
environment.  He  should  have  more  than  a  mere  knowl- 
edge of  things;  he  should  have  an  abiding  interest  in  all 
forms  of  nature;  he  should  have  a  healthy  curiosity  to 

237 


238  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

know  the  names  of  everything  he  sees;  he  should  have 
such  a  constantly  growing  appreciation  of  natural  beauty 
in  all  its  forms  that  it  will  lead  him  to  select  and  create 
beautiful  surroundings ;  he  should  have  such  a  growing 
realization  of  the  economic  importance  of  nature  that  it 
will  lead  him  to  protect  and  control  it  for  the  good  of 
mankind ;  he  should  have  a  permanent  attitude  of  investi- 
gation concerning  the  adaptation  of  form  to  function,  the 
relation  of  nature  to  the  needs  of  man,  and  the  problem 
of  its  control;  he  should  carry  into  his  home,  in  a  ma- 
terial and  practical  way,  many  things  gleaned  from  the 
study  of  nature  in  the  school. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

History  and  Geography.  The  first  step  is  to  bring 
the  child  into  intelligent  connection  with  his  surround- 
ings by  a  study  of  the  home  and  community  life.  The 
community  life  is  approached  through  a  study  of  the 
work  of  the  father,  the  sources  of  food,  clothing,  shelter, 
and  other  provisions  for  home  needs  and  comforts. 

Through  these  studies  the  child  should  be  trained  to 
see  that  human  progress  has  been  made  possible  by 
division  of  labor  and  by  cooperation.  This  idea  may  be 
developed,  also,  through  the  work  of  the  home  and 
through  school  life  and  games.  He  should  be  led  to  dis- 
cover the  universality  of  the  family  idea  by  a  study  of 
homes  in  other  lands. 

Through  these  studies  the  child  should  slowly  awaken 
to  the  mutual  interdependence  of  the  different  members 
of  the  human  family.  He  should  awaken  to  the  realiza- 
tion that  no  man  can  live  unto  himself  but  that  the  truest 
life  must  be  one  of  service. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  239 

Nature  Study  and  Geography.  The  experience  and 
needs  of  the  child  form  the  basis  for  the  selection  of  the 
material  for  the  study  of  nature.  The  work  should  begin 
with  a  study  of  the  immediate  environment,  and  as  his 
horizon  gradually  broadens  and  his  interests  begin  to 
rest  on  more  complex  experiences,  the  teacher  may  go 
farther  afield  for  subject-matter.  He  should  recognize 
the  interdependence  of  different  sections  of  the  country 
and  of  different  countries  one  upon  the  other. 

He  should  study  the  home,  food,  physical  character- 
istics, and  habits  of  the  animals  and  plants  which  furnish 
him  food,  clothing,  shelter,  and  other  home  comforts.  In 
other  words,  he  should  be  led  to  recognize  the  close  rela- 
tion between  all  forms  of  life  and  of  the  activities  in  the 
world. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY 

The  following  outlines  are  given  as  suggestions  for  the 
correlation  which  could  be  made  in  history,  geography, 
nature  study,  and  hand  work.  The  hand  work  suggested 
will  be  developed  in  Chapter  XX. 

These  outlines  should  not  be  completed  in  regular 
order,  topic  by  topic,  but  should  be  handled  according 
to  seasons.  In  the  fall,  "Family  and  Community  Pleas- 
ures" should  be  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
pleasures  in  the  fall.  In  connection  with  the  fall  pleasures 
all  the  correlation  pertaining  to  fall  work  should  be  car- 
ried out.  In  the  winter,  the  teacher  should  revert  to  this 
same  topic  and  discuss  winter  pleasures  together  with  the 
allied  topics.  In  the  spring  the  same  topic  will  again 
be  taken  up.  Each  topic  should  be  treated  in  this  way 
if  it  contains  anything  peculiar  to  a  season. 


240  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

First  Grade 

Aim  of  Course:    "To  socialize  the  child." 

I.     The  Home  and  Community  Life. 

A.  The  Family.  Leading  thought,  "A  real  home  is 
possible  only  when  the  love  of  each  member  is  shown 
through  cooperation,  helpfulness,  kindness,  and  obedi- 
ence." 

1.  Members:    Father,  mother,  children. 

2.  Occupations: 

a<  Mother:  washing,  ironing,  sweeping,  keeping  the 
house  tidy,  mending,  sewing,  baking,  canning,  care  of 
children,  combing  hair,  washing  faces,  etc.  The  idea 
of  the  mother's  loving  care  of  the  family  and  the  need 
for  lightening  her  work  in  every  way  possible  should  be 
stressed. 

b.  Father :  about  the  house,  as  making  of  fires,  carry- 
ing in  of  fuel  and  water,  care  of  the  garden,  cows,  horse. 
Each  child  should  be  allowed  to  tell  what  his  father  does 
to  earn  money  for  the  family.    ^ 

c.  Children:  helping  father  and  mother,  by  carrying 
in  the  fuel  and  water,  running  the  errands,  washing  the 
dishes,  taking  care  of  the  baby,  cleaning  the  yard,  making 
the  flower  beds,  gathering  the  flowers. 

3.  Love  and  Politeness  of  the  Child: 

a.  To  mother  and  father :  willing  and  cheerful  obedi- 
ence ;  promptness  to  meals ;  taking  care  of  toys ;  helping 
in  the  daily  tasks ;  practicing  nice  table  manners ;  saying 
"Please"  and  "Excuse  me" ;  avoiding  quarrels ;  warming 
father's  and  mother's  slippers ;  bringing  father  and 
mother  flowers,  fruit,  and  little  gifts;  good  behavior  in 
school ;  well  prepared  lessons. 

b.  To  brothers  and  sisters,  dividing  treats  with  them, 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  241 


giving  way  to  them  in  games,  allowing  them  to  play  with 
personal  toys,  saying  "Please,  Thank  you,  Excuse  me." 
4.  Helps:  Pictures  of  different  equipment  which  is 
used  in  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  home;  for  instance 
different  kinds  of  washing  machines,  irons,  stoves,  kitchen 
cabinets,  bread  mixers,  sewing  machines,  dish  washers. 
The  children  may  make  a  scrap  book  or  poster  showing 
the  different  things  their  mothers  could  use  in  their  work. 

B.  The  Family  and  the  Community 

Aim :  "To  teach  the  dependence  of  the  family  on  the 
community  for  its  existence.  The  need  for  cooperation 
and  for  each  to  do  his  part." 

C.  Family  and  Community  Pleasures:  Leading 
thought,  "The  dependence  of  man  upon  man  and  on 
nature  for  his  pleasures.  Each  child  has  a  part  in  making 
others  happy." 

Sources:  car  rides,  drives,  visits,  visitors,  picnics, 
parties,  pets,  flowers,  games,  toys,  .stories,  making  scrap 
books,  celebration  of  special  days,  and  observing  birds 
and  insects. 

1 .  Car  rides,  drives,  picnics,  visits,  and  visitors :  Lead- 
ing thought,  "Need  of  courtesy,  kindness,  and  unselfish- 
ness on  the  part  of  those  participating." 

Different  modes  of  travel ;  need  for  parks. 
Helps:  pictures,  booklets,  sand-table. 

2.  Parties:  Leading  thought,  "Real  pleasure  depends 
upon  courtesy,  thoughtfulness,  and  unselfishness." 

How  to  make  the  home  attractive,  games  to  play,  re- 
freshments, dress. 

3.  Animal  Life:  Leading  thought,  "How  animals, 
birds,  and  insects  add  to  the  child's  pleasure.  His  part 
in  caring  for  them." 


242  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

a.  Pets ;  care,  food,  habits,  physical  characteristics, 
means  of  protection  from  enemy,  natural  home. 

b.  Birds:  Teach  the  child  to  recognize  a  few  of  the 
most  common  birds,  their  food,  habits,  home,  migration, 
and  return. 

c.  Insect  Life:  Observe  any  insect  to  be  found  in 
the  community,  where  seen,  what  happens  as  the  weather 
grows  colder;  in  the  spring  observe  cocoons;  note  the 
reappearance  of  many  forms  of  insect  life. 

Devices:    Natural  objects  and  pictures. 

4.  Flowers:  Leading  thought,  "How  flowers  add  to 
the  child's  pleasure  by  making  the  world  more  beautiful. 
How  he  may  use  flowers  to  add  to  the  pleasure  of 
others." 

Teach  the  child  to  recognize  the  most  common  fall  and 
spring  flowers  in  both  garden  and  field ;  note  the  seeding 
of  flowers;  collect  seeds  for  spring  planting;  study  the 
whole  plant  to  discover  the  use  of  the  roots,  stem,  and 
leaves ;  note  the  effect  of  frost ;  gather  flowers  for  beauti- 
fying the  schoolroom,  home,  or  a  sick  room;  plant  a 
hyacinth  or  narcissus  bulb  in  time  for  it  to  bloom  for 
Easter.  This  is  to  be  taken  to  mother  or  a  sick 
friend. 

Devices:    Natural  objects  and  colored  pictures. 

5.  Toys,  Games,  and  Sports:  Leading  thought,  "Need 
for  cooperation,  fairness,  and  unselfishness. 

a.  Toys:  Kind,  care. 

b.  Games  and  sports:  Kind,  selection  of  game  de- 
pends upon  weather,  season,  length  of  days,  kind  best 
adapted  to  warm  weather,  cold  weather,  rainy  days,  etc. 
In  this  connection  study  rain,  snow,  long  and  short  days. 
In  the  study  of  snow,  which  should  be  developed  when 
there  is  snow  on  the  ground,  study  the  Eskimos,  who 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  243 

are  known  as  "the  Little  Children  of  the  Snow."  Study 
their  homes,  home  life,  dress,  food,  games ;  make  an 
Eskimo  sand-table. 

Devices:   pictures,  sand-tables,  posters,  booklets. 

6.     Special  Days: 

a.  Thanksgiving:  Leading  thought,  "Gratitude  to 
God  for  the  preservation  of  life." 

Story  of  the  first  Thanksgiving  in  this  country ;  Colonial 
homes,  home  life,  dress;  study  of  Indian  homes,  home 
life,  food,  and  occupation;  study  of  common  fruits, 
vegetables,  grains,  and  turkey. 

Devices :  Use  pictures  extensively ;  collect  Indian  and 
Colonial  relics ;  dramatize  the  Thanksgiving  story  using 
very  simple  costumes;  duplicate  the  scene  on  the  sand- 
table. 

b.  Christmas:  Leading  thought,  "God's  great  love  for 
man." 

Story  of  the  birth  of  Christ;  Christmas  in  America, 
Japan,  France,  Italy,  and  England.  Study  of  the  ever- 
greens, the  camel,  the  common  fruits,  and  the  vegetables 
used  at  Christmas. 

Devices :  Pictures,  sand-table,  dramatization  of  Christ- 
mas story  and  of  Christmas  in  other  lands  using  simple 
costumes. 

c.  Washington's  Birthday:  Story  of  Washington's 
boyhood,  study  of  home  life  and  of  child  life  of  Colonial 
days;  story  of  the  first  flag. 

Devices :  Pictures,  curios,  simple  dramatization,  book- 
lets, and  sand-tables. 

d.  Easter:  Leading  thought,  "The  awakening  of  new 
life." 

Biblical  story  of  first  Easter;  study  of  egg,  chicken, 
rabbit,  lily;  why  these  are  used. 


244  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Devices:    Pictures,  real  objects. 

II.  Supplying  Material  Needs  in  the  Home  and 
Community. 

Leading  thought,  "Man's  dependence  on  man  and  on 
nature  for  food  and  sustenance.  Need  and  value  of 
cooperation  in  their  production  and  preparation." 

1.  Food:  What  the  child  eats ;  teach  him  to  recognize 
the  common  fruits  and  vegetables;  trace  the  common 
fruits,  vegetables,  and  grains  to  their  sources;  brief 
study  of  farm  life,  grocery  store,  dairy,  bakery,  mill,  ice 
factory,  meat  shop;  study  the  common  farm  animals  as 
to  names,  food,  habits,  physical  characteristics,  and  value 
to  farmer;  a  study  of  the  weather  conditions,  heat,  cold, 
rain,  frost,  etc. ;  have  simple  school  gardens ;  encourage 
home  gardens ;  study  of  germination ;  preparation  of  food 
for  eating;  simple  reasons  for  cleanliness  in  cooking; 
preservation  of  food;  cooking,  refrigeration,  canning, 
drying. 

Devices :  Natural  objects,  exhibits,  pictures,  sand- 
tables,  excursion  to  points  of  interest,  booklets,  and 
posters. 

2.  Clothing: 

a.  Garments:  Material;  where  produced;  study  of 
cotton  plant,  sheep,  silkworm  and  cocoon,  and  flax  plant ; 
choosing  clothing  suitable  to  season ;  care  of  clothing. 

b.  Shoes:  Material;  where  produced;  study  of  ani- 
mals from  which  leather  is  made;  rubber;  study  of  shoe- 
maker and  shoe  store. 

Devices:  Natural  objects,  exhibits,  pictures,  excur- 
sions to  points  of  interest. 

3.  Shelter: 

a.  Use :  the  home  is  the  place  of  abode  of  the  family  ; 
types  of  homes;  location  depends  on  water,   drainage, 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  245 

sunlight,  shade,  beauty  of  surroundings,  convenience  to 
church,  school,  and  business. 

b.  Materials :  brick,  wood,  stone ;  the  work  of  the 
architect,  brickmason,  carpenter,  plasterer,  painter,  paper- 
hanger.  Value  of  these  workmen  to  a  community ;  need 
for  cooperation  in  building  a  home;  study  of  wood, 
trees ;  learn  to  recognize  trees  by  leaves  and  bark,  note 
the  budding  of  trees. 

c.  Furnishings:  Furniture,  use,  and  care  of  each 
room. 

d.  Light  and  heat :  Different  methods  of  heating  and 
lighting;  study  source  of  coal,  work  of  coal  miners. 

e.  Beautifying  the  home:  pictures,  rugs,  flowers, 
good  selection  of  colors;  lawn,  grass,  flower  beds;  clean- 
liness. 

f.  Study  of  types  of  shelter  of  Indians,  of  people  of 
colonial  days,  of  Japanese,  and  of  Eskimos. 

Devices:  Pictures  of  different  styles  of  homes,  furni- 
ture, tools,  ways  of  heating  and  lighting,  exhibits;  sand- 
tables  ;  excursions  to  factories,  stores,  forests,  mines, 
etc. 

III.     Other  People  Who  Serve  Us: 

1.  The  Doctor:  Value  of  health;  contagious  and 
germ  diseases ;  protection  from  disease  by  developing  the 
physical  body,  by  means  of  fresh  air,  pure  water,  per- 
sonal cleanliness,  sanitation  in  home,  thorough  masti- 
cation of  food ;  value  of  a  good  doctor's  service ;  work  of 
nurse;  value  of  a  hospital. 

2.  The  Teacher:  Need  for  schools;  the  child's  part 
in  the  school  life;  opportunities  for  helpfulness  and 
kindness  to  teacher  and  playmates. 

3.  The  Preacher:  Service  to  the  minister;  value  of 
the  Sunday  School  and  churches  to  a  community;  the 


246  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


child's  part  in  the  services  of  the  Sunday  School  and 
Church;  observance  of  the  Sabbath. 

4.  The  Mail  Carrier:  What  he  does  for  the  com- 
munity ;  mode  of  travel ;  how  to  make  his  work  happier ; 
the  use  of  newspapers  and  magazines;  a  visit  to  the 
printing  office. 

5.  If  the  children  live  in  a  city  study  the  work  of  the 
policeman,  fireman,  expressman,  newsboy,  drayman, 
school  janitor,  street  cleaner,  and  health  officer. 

Second  Grade 

The  work  of  the  first  grade  is  used  as  a  basis  for  a 
more  extensive  study  of  home  and  community  life,  and 
their  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  country.  Primi- 
tive life,  as  represented  by  the  Tree-dwellers  and  Cave- 
men is  studied  and  compared  with  a  later  period  of  life 
as  represented  by  the  Indian  life  of  Colonial  days;  then 
comes  the  study  of  colonial  life. 

In  the  first  grade  the  aim  has  been  to  awaken  the 
child  to  a  knowledge  of  his  interdependence  on  man 
and  nature  for  his  existence,  and  to  the  fact  that  he  has 
a  service  to  render  to  the  community.  His  sympathies 
have  been  aroused  through  the  simple  study  of  the  child 
life  of  the  Japanese,  of  the  Eskimos,  and  of  the  Colonist. 
In  the  second  grade  his  sympathies  are  expanded  and 
strengthened  as  he  is  led  to  see  the  progress  of  men 
toward  a  life  of  greater  service.  He  is  led  to  realize 
how  cooperation,  invention,  and  education  lighten  the 
work  of  the  world  and  make  it  a  happier  place  in  which 
to  live. 

Modern  and  Primitive  Days 

Aim  "To  socialize  the  child." 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  247 

A.  Shelter:  Aim :  "To  help  the  child  to  appreciate 
the  contrast  and  development  of  means  of  shelter." 

1.  Present  Day:  See  the  first  grade  outline.  This 
should  be  reviewed  and  extended. 

2.  Primitive  Days: 

a.  Tree  dwellers:  location  of  house,  reason  for 
locating,  type,  material,  workmen,  tools,  rooms,  use, 
furnishing,  light,  heat,  water  supply. 

b.  Cave  dwellers :  location  of  house,  reason  for 
locating,  type,  furnishings,  light,  heat. 

3.  People  of  Colonial  Days: 

a.  Indians :  Reasons  for  location  of  home,  types  of 
house,  materials,  workmen,  tools,  rooms,  furnishings, 
light,  heat,  water  supply. 

b.  Colonists :  Reasons  for  location  of  homes,  type  of 
houses,  material,  workmen,  tools,  rooms,  furnishings, 
light,  heat,  water  supply. 

Devices:    Pictures,  sand-table,  scrap-books,  posters. 

4.  In  connection  with  the  study  of  materials  and  fur- 
niture study  kinds  of  wood,  trace  each  to  its  source; 
study  of  lumber  camps,  mills,  factories.  Teach  the  child 
to  recognize  the  oak,  maple,  pine,  chestnut,  poplar; 
study  brick,  concrete,  granite,  marble,  sandstone,  slate. 
In  connection  with  the  heating  of  modern  homes  teach 
something  of  the  life  story  of  coal,  study  of  coal  mines, 
transportation  of  coal,  elementary  study  of  gas,  kero- 
sene, and  electricity ;  study  weather  as  a  cause  of  shelter ; 
change  in  temperature,  reading  the  thermometer;  study 
of  moon,  winds. 

B.  People:  Aim:  "To  help  the  child  see  the 
cause  for  the  lightening  of  labor;  the  opportunity  for 
education  and  mental  and  physical  development." 

1.     Present   Day.      See    first   grade    outline    for    the 


248  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


family.     Review  and  extend.     To  the  special  days  add 
Columbus  Day;  Lincoln's  Birthday. 

2.  Primitive  Days: 

a.  Tree-dwellers:  Members  of  the  family;  personal 
appearance,  size,  color,  disposition,  occupation  of  women, 
children,  men;  education;  pleasure. 

b.  Cave-men:  Members  of  family;  personal  appear- 
ance, size,  color,  disposition ;  occupation  of  men,  women, 
children ;  education ;  pleasures. 

3.  Colonial  Days: 

a.  Indians :  Members  of  a  family ;  occupation  of 
squaws,  children,  braves;  education,  pleasures. 

b.  Colonists:  Members  of  a  family,  occupation  of 
mother,  children,  father ;  education ;  pleasures. 

Devices :     Pictures,  sand-table,  scrap-book. 

4.  Pleasures  of  Present  Day  (extension  of  first-grade 
course)  :  a.  In  connection  with  Thanksgiving,  trace 
vegetables  to  their  source,  study  plant  with  reference  to 
root,  stem,  leaf,  flowers,  fruit,  or  seed. 

b.  Christmas :  Study  of  evergreen  trees,  cedar,  pine, 
spruce,  fir,  holly. 

c.  Easter :  Hens  and  chickens ;  have  a  hen  and  chicks 
at  school;  care  of  hen,  food,  habits,  time  required  for 
hatching  eggs,  incubator,  enemies  of  hen  and  chickens ; 
visit  an  incubator. 

d.  Flowers  :  Review  those  studied  in  the  first  grade ; 
teach  the  child  to  identify  clover,  gentian,  sweet  alyssum, 
mignonnette,  petunia,  verbena,  phlox,  cosmos,  snap- 
dragon, bachelor-button,  wild  lily  of  the  valley,  dogwood, 
azalea,  and  others.  Teach  how  the  life  of  the  plant  is 
preserved,  developing  the  idea  of  food-making  and  food- 
storage. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  249 

e.  Insects:  Study  the  insects  that  work  about  the 
flowers. 

f.  Birds :  Teach  the  child  to  identify  blue-jay,  car- 
dinal, oriole,  catbird,  bluebird,  and  other  common  birds; 
teach  something  of  the  habits,  food,  and  physical  char- 
acteristics of  these  birds;  note  the  migration  and  return 
of  birds ;  organize  an  Audubon  society  for  this  work. 

Devices:    Natural  objects,  excursions,  and  pictures. 

C.  Food :  Aim :  "To  help  the  child  to  see  how 
animals  and  plants  work  for  men.  Help  him  to  see  how 
cooperation,  invention,  and  helpfulness  lighten  labor." 

1.  Present  Day: 

Kinds  of  food ;  visit  a  farm  and  truck  gardens ;  teach 
the  farm  implements  and  machinery ;  visit  mills,  market ; 
preparation  of  food;  drying,  canning,  refrigeration;  pre- 
servation of  potatoes,  cabbage,  etc.;  visit  canning  fac- 
tory, ice  factory,  cold-storage  plant,  etc. ;  sources  of  heat 
for  cooking;  coal  stove,  wood  stove,  kerosene  stove, 
acetylene  gas,  natural  gas,  electrical  stove,  fireless  cooker. 

2.  Primitive  Days: 

a.  Tree-dwellers:  kind  of  food,  source,  preparation, 
cooking,  implements,  utensils,  source  of  heat. 

b.  Cave-men :  kind  of  food,  source,  preparation,  cook- 
ing, implements,  utensils,  source  of  heat. 

3.  Colonial  Days: 

a.  Indians:  kind  of  food,  preparation,  cooking,  im- 
plements, utensils,  source  of  heat. 

b.  Colonists :  kind  of  food,  preparation,  cooking,  im- 
plements, utensils,  source  of  heat. 

Devices :    Natural  objects,  pictures,  excursions. 

4.  a.  Plants:  Study  the  life  story  of  many  articles 
of  food  such  as  vegetables  and  grains;  study  the  plants 
as  to  parts  and  characteristics;  watch  the  plants'  prepa- 


250  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


ration  for  winter;  collect  seeds  of  different  kinds;  study 
natural  provisions  for  distribution  of  seeds;  in  spring 
study  germination  of  seeds;  make  experiments  to  deter- 
mine the  effect  of  light,  heat,  and  moisture,  and  of  the 
kind  of  soil  best  suited  to  plants ;  make  a  school  garden 
as  a  model  for  a  home  garden;  encourage  each  child  to 
plant  a  home  garden;  have  school  exhibits  of  vegetables 
and  flowers  grown. 

b.  Fruits:  kinds,  source;  study  of  trees  and  plants 
which  produce  fruit;  study  buds  and  blooms;  watch  to 
see  what  becomes  of  each  part  of  the  flower;  note  the 
insects  about  the  trees;  study  the  methods  of  packing 
and  shipping,  and  preservation  of  food. 

c.  Animals:  kind  used  for  food;  physical  character- 
istics, habits,  foods,  care,  natural  home,  use  to  man; 
preparation  for  winter. 

d.  Garden  foes:   cutworms,  lice,  caterpillars. 
Garden  friends:   toads,  earthworms,  bees,  birds. 

e.  Weather:  work  of  the  sun:  furnishes  light,  heat; 
effect  of  rain  and  droughts  on  food  supply,  how  rain 
gets  into  clouds,  reading  of  the  thermometer,  value  of 
the  thermometer  to  gardener ;  snow :  where  it  comes 
from,  how  it  gets  into  the  clouds,  condition  under  which 
snow  falls ;  catch  flakes  and  examine  crystals ;  use  of 
snow  to  plants. 

Devices:  natural  objects,  pictures,  excursions,  experi- 
ments. 

D.  Travel  and  Transportation:  Leading  thought, 
"How  necessity  leads  to  invention." 

1.  Present  Day:  Train,  steamboat,  ship,  electric  car, 
auto,  air  planes,  bicycle,  motor  cycle,  wagon,  horseback, 
walking. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  251 

2.  Primitive  Days:  Carrying;  walking,  footgear  and 
accessories ;  inventions  to  make  this  work  easier. 

3.  Colonial  Days: 

a.  Indians  :   carrying,  walking,  canoeing. 

b.  Colonists  :  walking,  carrying,  coasting,  horseback 
riding. 

Devices:   Pictures,  paper  construction,  natural  objects. 

E.  Clothing: 

1.  Present  Day:  kinds,  use,  material,  source,  process 
of  making  cloth ;  visit  to  mill ;  shoes :  material,  source, 
process  of  making. 

2.  Primitive  Days:  kind  of  clothing,  use,  material, 
source,  preparation  of  clothing,  covering  for  feet. 

3.  Colonial  Days: 

a.  Indians:  kind,  use,  material,  source,  process  of 
making,  covering  for  feet. 

b.  Colonists :  material,  source,  process  of  making, 
covering  for  feet. 

4.  a.  Plants :  Study  life  story  of  plants  from  which 
cloth  is  made,  as  flax,  cotton,  mulberry  tree;  study  silk- 
worm ;  study  of  rubber. 

b.  Animals:  Animals  which  furnish  materials  for 
clothing;  characteristics,  habits,  home  food,  use  to  man; 
animals'  preparation  for  winter;  special  study  of  wool. 

F.  Means  of  Protection: 

1.  Present  Day:  policeman,  sheriff,  law,  prisons, 
guns,  fire  equipment,  fireman,  health  boards,  doctor, 
hospital,  nurse. 

2.  Primitive  Days:  Bows  and  arrows,  flint  spear, 
fire,  location  of  home. 

G.  Fire :  Origin  ;  lightning,  volcanoes,  falling  rock, 
friction  of  certain  woods,  traditions  of  origin  of  fire. 


252  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

1.  Uses: 

a.  Present  Day :  light,  drying  clothes,  cooking,  moving 
of  trains,  cars,  automobiles,  machinery,  etc. 

b.  Primitive  Days :  heat,  cooking,  protection  from  wild 
animals,  insects,  serpents,  etc. 

2.  Dangers  from  fire:  burning  buildings,  injury  to 
people,  injury  to  forests  and  to  prairies. 

3.  Protection  from  fire:  fireman,  fire  equipment, 
safety  matches,  fire  escapes,  doors  opening  outward,  pro- 
tection of  all  sources  of  fire,  fire  drills. 

Third  Grade 

In  this  grade,  the  child  is  brought  into  closer  touch  with 
the  life  of  colonial  days  and  of  other  lands.  His  work  is 
beginning  to  have  a  real  historical  aspect.  He  makes  a 
closer  study  of  some  of  the  events  of  colonial  history 
which  have  been  touched  on  in  the  second  grade.  He  is 
led  to  see  how  others  have  suffered  hardship  that  there 
might  be  peace  and  liberty.  His  sympathies  are  deepened 
and  broadened  by  a  study  of  life  in  other  lands.  The 
great  war  of  nations  is  made  a  basis  for  this  study. 

This  work  is  developed  largely  by  stories,  relics,  curios, 
pictures,  and  the  sand-table.  The  child  is  encouraged  to 
dramatize  the  different  scenes,  using  very  simple  costumes 
and  stage  settings. 

A.     The  Early  Settlements: 

1.  Review  briefly  the  Colonial  life  developed  in  the 

first  and  second  grades. 

2.  The  Plymouth  Settlement: 

a.  Cause  of  emigration  from  England 

b.  Life  in  Holland 

c.  Voyage  across  the  ocean 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  253 

d.  Early  experiences 

(1)  shelter 

(2)  food 

(3)  clothing 

(4)  occupations  and  pleasures 

(5)  education 

(6)  dangers  and  protections 

(7)  methods  of  travel  and  transportation 

3.  The  Virginia  Settlement: 

a.  Causes  which  led  to  settlement 

b.  Early  experiences 

(1)  shelter 

(2)  food 

(3)  clothing 

(4)  occupations  and  pleasures 

(5)  education 

(6)  dangers  and  protections 

(7)  methods  of  travel  and  transportation 

4.  Present  Day  Life:  Compare  present  day  life  with 
the  life  of  the  Colonists.  Lead  the  child  to  discover  the 
causes  for  the  progress  of  the  race. 

Devices :    Pictures,  sand-table,  relics,  dramatization. 

5.  Life  in -Holland: 

a.  Location  and  description 

b.  Homes :  types,  material,  workmen's  tools,   fur- 
nishings, lights,  heat,  water  supply 

c.  People:    appearance,  dress,  occupation 

d.  Food:   kind,  source,  preparation,  cooking 

e.  Education 

f.  Cities:   buildings,  streets,  cars,  light,  water  sup- 
ply, etc. 

g.  Farm  life 

h.  Peculiar  customs 


254  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

i.    Holidays  and  pleasures 
j.    Transportation  and  travel 
Compare  with  America  as  to  natural  characteristics, 
people,  homes,   food,  transportation,  travel,  cities,  holi- 
days, amusements,  etc. 

6.  In  connection  with  the  study  of  Holland,  study 
farm  life;  cows,  dairying,  cheese  making,  dogs,  geese, 
and  ducks,  poultry,  fruits,  vegetables,  fish,  weather. 

a.  Farm:  parts,  crops,  other  products,  animals,  care 
of  crops  and  animals,  machinery  and  tools,  activities  on 
the  farm.    Discussion  of  crops  and  products. 

(1)  Stock:  value  to  farmer,  to  others,  care  of  stock, 
feed,  cost  and  care  of  food,  disposal  of  surplus  stock. 

(2)  Grains:  kinds,  value,  cultivation  and  harvest, 
tools  and  machinery,  shipment  and  transportation  to 
market. 

b.  Truck  Garden:  variety  of  things  raised;  location 
of  garden,  soil,  cultivation,  tools,  garden  friends:  earth- 
worms, birds,  bees;  garden  foes:  cutworms,  lice,  potato 
bugs,  caterpillars,  scales ;  make  a  study  of  bees,  potatoes, 
radishes,  strawberries ;  have  school  garden ; .  encourage 
home  gardens ;  study  life  story  of  toads  and  frogs. 

c.  The   Orchard:    kind   of   fruit  trees;    foes:   scale, 
insects ;  friends :  birds ;  care  of  trees ;  harvesting  of  crops ;  / 
preparation  for  market ;  transportation  to  market ;  value 
as  food. 

d.  Dairying:  value  of  cow  to  man;  products:  milk, 
cream,  butter,  cheese ;  other  products :  hide,  hoofs,  bones, 
suet,  etc. ;  care  of  cow,  necessary  cleanliness ;  visit  a 
dairy,  care  of  cows  and  stables ;  cleansing  of  bottles ;  cool- 
ing of  milk ;  use  of  separator ;  bottling ;  delivery. 

e.  Poultry:  value  to  man;  kinds;  value  of  different 
kinds;  care;  food;  selection  of  food;  foes;  extermina- 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  255 

tion  of  foes ;  special  study  of  geese,  ducks,  chickens,  and 
turkeys ;  methods  of  marketing,  dressing,  preparation  for 
shipment;  visit  a  poultry  plant  if  possible. 

f.  Bulbs:  kinds,  note  parts  and  use  of  each;  plant 
bulbs  in  fall  and  bury  for  six  or  eight  weeks;  bring  to 
light  and  keep  a  record  of  care  and  development. 

g.  Weather:  changes  in  temperature,  and  weather 
conditions ;  effect  on  crops ;  reading  of  thermometer ; 
value  of  thermometer  to  fruit  grower  and  truck  gardener ; 
review  of  the  work  of  rain  and  snow  given  in  second 
grade. 

h.  Dog  (develop  from  use  of  dog  carts  in  Holland) : 
use  to  man;  structure;  habits;  adaption;  breeds;  use  of 
different  breeds;  domestication  of  dog;  wild  cousins  of 
dogs :  wolf,  hyena. 

Devices :  natural  objects,  excursions,  pictures,  sand- 
table,  posters,  scrap-book,  post-cards. 

B.     The  War  of  Nations : 

1.  Where  fought 

2.  Countries  participating 

3.  Implements  of  war . 

4.  Life  in  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  from 
a  child's  point  of  view.  Supplementary  study 
— Russia,  Italy 

a.     Germany: 

(.1)  location  and  description 

(2)  homes,  type  of  house,  material,  workman, 
tools,  light  and  heat,  furnishings,  water 
supply 

(3)  people:  appearance,  dress,  occupation 

(4)  pleasures  and  amusements 

(5)  food:  kind,  source,  preparation,  cooking 


256  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


(6)  education 

(7)  holidays 

(8)  customs 

(9)  cities :  buildings,  streets,  care, 1  ealth  board, 
etc. 

(10)  farm  life 

(11)  transportation  and  travei 

(12)  comparison   with   America   as    to   points 
given 

b.  France: 

(1)  location  and  description 

(2)  homes,  type  of  house,  material,  workman, 
tools,  light  and  heat,  furnishings,  water 
supply 

(3)  people:  appearance,  dress,  occupation 

(4)  pleasures  and  amusements 

(5)  food:  kind,  source,  preparation,  cooking 

(6)  education 

(7)  customs 

(8)  holidays 

(9)  cities  :  buildings,  streets,  care,  health  board 

(10)  farm  life 

(11)  transportation  and  travel 

(12)  comparison   with   America    as   to   points 
given 

c.  Belgium: 

(1)  location  and  description 

(2)  homes,  type  of  house,  material,  workman, 
tools,  light  and  heat,  furnishings,  water 
supply 

(3)  people:  appearance,  dress,  occupation 

(4)  pleasures  and  amusements 

(5)  food:  kind,  source,  preparation,  cooking 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  257 

(6)  education 

(7)  customs 

(8)  holidays 

(9)  cities :  buildings,  streets,  care,  health  board 

(10)  farm  life 

(11)  transportation  and  travel 

(12)  comparison  with  America  as  to  points 
given 

Devices:    pictures,   sand-tables,   dramatization,   souve- 
nirs, post-cards,  scrap-books,  posters. 

(13)  study  of  vegetables:  cabbage,  potatoes, 
grains,  buckwheat,  rye;  fruits:  apples, 
grapes;  animals:  hogs,  cows,  horses;  re- 
view or  teach  farm  life;  compare  with 
farm  life  of  countries  studied 

d.  Japan:  The  child  is  always  interested  in  Japan 
because  of  the  rice,  tea,  fans,  umbrellas,  kites, 
and  other  Japanese  products  which  they  see. 

(1)  location  and  description 

(2)  homes,  type  of  house,  material,  workman, 
tools,  light  and  heat,  furnishings,  water 
supply 

(3)  people:  appearance,  dress,  occupation 

(4)  pleasures  and  amusements 

(5)  food:  kind,  source,  preparation,  cooking 

(6)  education 

(7)  customs 

(8)  holidays 

(9)  cities  :  buildings,  streets,  care,  health  board 

(10)  farm  life 

(11)  transportation  and  travel 

(12)  comparison  with  America  as  to  points 
given 

(13)  study  of  teas  and  rice,  as  articles  of  food; 


258  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

trees:  cherry,  plum;  flowers:  chrysanthe- 
mum,   iris,    azalea,    lotus;    insects:    silk- 
worm, butterfly,  moth 
Devices:   natural  objects  and  pictures. 
C.     Heroes  of  History: 

Columbus  Joseph 

Washington  Isaac 

Lincoln  Moses 

Ulysses  Aaron 

Abraham  David 

Alexander  the  Great 


CHAPTER  XIX 

HISTORY,  NATURE  STUDY,  AND 
GEOGRAPHY— (Continued) 

METHOD 

In  these  studies  of  history,  geography,  and  nature 
study,  there  should  be  the  actual  observation  of  the  thing 
studied,  whenever  practicable.  When  feasible,  the  mate- 
rial should  be  brought  to  the  schoolroom.  A  school- 
made  museum  will  form  a  very  interesting  part  of  this 
work.  When  it  is  not  practicable  to  bring  the  material 
to  the  schoolroom  excursions  may  be  made  to  points  of 
interest.  When  neither  of  these  is  possible  much  may 
be  made  clear  through  the  use  of  pictures.  The  teacher 
and  the  child  should  keep  a  close  watch  on  all  papers 
and  magazines  for  pictures  of  interest.  These  pictures 
may  be  made  into  scrap-books  or  may  be  exhibited  on  a 
bulletin  board.  Later  the  pictures  may  be  placed  in  boxes 
or  envelopes  and  put  away  for  future  reference. 

The  stereoscope  is  a  valuable  asset  in  the  teaching  of 
history,  geography,  and  nature  study.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  motion  picture,  the  stereoscopic  picture  is  pos- 
sibly the  next  best  thing  to  the  actual  object.  It  may 
be  procured  very  cheaply  from  certain  school-supply 
houses.  The  largest  and  best  assortment  of  pictures  is 
furnished  by  the  Underwood  and  Underwood  Company, 
New  York. 

The  sand-table  is  another  valuable  asset  in  this  work. 

259 


260  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

Here  the  child  may  gain  some  idea  of  the  life  in  other 
parts  of  his  own  country  and  of  that  in  foreign  lands. 
The  use  of  the  sand-table  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in 
Chapter  XX. 

LESSON  PLANS 

The  lessons  in  history,  geography,  and  nature  study 
are  appreciation  lessons  the  aims  of  which  are  to  awaken 
and  to  develop  a  love  for  and  appreciation  of  the  beauti- 
ful in  nature  and  in  the  relationship  existing  in  all  forms 
of  life. 

The  first  step  in  awakening  appreciation  is  a  true  ap- 
preciation on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It  is  suggested  that 
she  become  a  student  of  nature  and  of  social  relation- 
ships. She  should  utilize  every  opportunity  for  first- 
hand observation,  and  in  addition  books,  pictures,  and 
specimens  should  be  used.  Literature  and  art  offer  a 
splendid  opportunity  for  awakening  this  appreciation. 

The  attitude  of  the  child  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson 
is  very  important.  An  appreciation  lesson  may  be  entirely 
spoiled  if  his  attitude  is  the  reverse  to  that  of  apprecia- 
tion. Should  he  be  cross  and  tired  or  ill  the  teacher  will 
find  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  desired  results. 
Again  he  may  have  gained  erroneous  ideas  which  will  hin- 
der the  development  of  appreciation.  Consequently,  the 
step  of  preparation  is  rather  an  important  one  as  it  is 
through  this  step  that  the  teacher  strives  to  bring  the 
child  to  a  desirable  attitude  toward  the  lesson  to  be  pre- 
sented. Sincere  appreciation  is  a  matter  of  the  emotions. 
It  may  be  aroused  through  a  story,  a  poem,  a  picture,  a 
game,  a  bright  little  song,  or  by  an  apt  question. 

The  next  step  in  the  lesson  is  the  presentation  of  the 
new  material.     This  may  be  most  successfully  done  by 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  261 

the  use  of  the  natural  objects,  by  a  picture,  or  by  a  speci- 
men, or  curio.  The  child  should  be  allowed  a  few  minutes 
for  free  observation,  then  by  well  selected  questions,  the 
attention  should  be  directed  to  points  of  interest. 

The  lessons  in  social  life  and  nature  study  offer  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  the  development  of  the  reasoning 
power;  for  example,  "Why  is  the  color  of  the  wild  rab- 
bit a  means  of  protection  ?" 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 
First  Grade 

I.  Subject:   History  or  social  life. 

II.  Topic:  The  work  of  the  mother  with  special  em- 
phasis on  laundering. 

III.  Outline: 

1.    Work  of  Mother 
a.  Washing 

(1)  need 

(2)  method 

IV.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  to  real- 
ize the  many  services  his  mother  renders  him  because  of 
her  love  for  him.  (2)  To  help  him  see  that  he  can  do 
much  to  make  her  work  lighter.  (3)  To  train  him  to 
think. 

V.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  tell  of  his  mother's  work 
and  to  discover  what  he  may  do  to  help  her.  (2)  To 
find  pictures  of  washing  machines  for  posters. 

VI.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

•              1  1 

Experiences      prepara-  Preparation:     "Who  helped  you 

tory  to  coming  to  school.  get   ready   for   school  this   morning? 


262  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

What  did  she  do?  Could  you  have 
helped  mother  by  doing  some  of 
these  things  for  yourself?  Did 
mother  do  any  other  thing  for  you 
this  morning?  Could  you  have 
helped  ?  What  are  some  of  the  other 
things  she  will  do  for  you  today? 
What  .will  she  do  for  you  tonight? 
How  can  you  help  her?  Why  does 
mother  do  so  much  for  you?  I  won- 
der why  you  should  want  to  help 
her?"    • 


a.    Washing  Presentation:    "Do  you  wear  the 

(1)  need  same   clothes   to    school   every   day? 

(2)  method  Why  not?     Who  washes  your  clothes  ? 

How  is  the  washing  done  ?  Is  it  hard 
work?  What  could  you  do  to  make 
the  washing  easier?  Do  you  know 
of  any  easier  ways  to  do  washing? 
Why  do  you  think  mother  should  have 
a  washing  machine?  I  wonder  who 
could  find  some  pictures  of  washing 
machines  ?  Bring  all  the  pictures  you 
can  find  and  we  will  make  posters 
showing  the  hard  way  and  the  easy 
way  to  wash.  Do  you  suppose  we 
could  use  these  posters  in  a  way  that 
will  help  mother?  What  would  you 
suggest?  What  do  you  suppose 
mother  and  father  would  think  if 
you  were  to  show  them  these  post- 
ers?" 

Second  and  Third  Grades 

I.  Subject.    History. 

II.  Topic:    Shelter  of  Cave  Men. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  263 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  give  information 
about  the  shelter  in  one  period  of  primitive  people.  (2) 
To  help  the  child  to  see  how  education,  invention,  and 
cooperation  have  added  to  comfort  and  pleasure. 

IV.  Lesson  Outline: 

1.  Description  of  shelter 

2.  Why  used 

3.  Location 

4.  Furnishings 

a.  bed 

b.  carpet 

c.  bowls 

5.  Light  and  heat 

V.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  learn  of  the  shelter  of 
some  of  the  primitive  people.  (2)  To  discover  what  has 
led  to  our  type  of  shelter.  (3)  To  prepare  the  story  to 
tell  to  his  mother. 

VI.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

This  lesson  follows  the  one  on  the  shelter  of  modern 
days. 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

1.     Description  of  "Do    you    suppose    people    always 

shelter  lived  in  houses  like  ours?     Tell   of 

those  who  did  not.  (Indians,  Eski- 
mos, Japanese.)  Did  you  know  that 
people  once  lived  in  caves?  What 
do  you  think  would  be  a  good  name 
for  these  people?  Did  you  ever  see 
a  cave?  Tell  me  what  it  is  like." 
If  children  are  not  familiar  with 
caves  they  should  visit  one  if  practi- 
cable, otherwise  a  demonstration 
should  be  made  on  the  sand-table. 


264 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


2.     Why  used 


3.    Location 


4. 


Furnishings 

a.  bed 

b.  carpet 

c.  bowls 


"Why  do  you  suppose  people  want- 
ed to  live  in  caves?  Let  me  tell  you 
how  they  lived  before  and  see  if  you 
can  work  out  the  reason.  Their 
houses  were  made  of  brush  in  the 
rudest  kind  of  way.  When  the 
ground  was  covered  with  ice  and 
snow  how  do  you  suppose  they  felt? 
Could  a  cave  let  in  as  much  cold  as 
these  brush  huts?  Then  why  would 
it  make  a  better  horned 

"Would  you  have  liked  to  live  in 
a  cave?  Why  or  why  not?  What 
has  helped  us  to  have  better  houses  ?" 
(Education,  invention,  and  coopera- 
tion.) 

"Is  there  any  reason  why  one  cave 
would  be  better  than  another  ?  What 
are  the  things  we  think  about  when 
selecting  a  home?  (Water,  drainage, 
sunlight,  shade,  beauty  of  surround- 
ings, convenience  to  school,  church, 
and  business.)  Which  of  these  do 
you  think  the  cave  men  would  have 
had  to  consider?  (Water.)  Why 
would  the  things  we  consider  make 
our  homes  pleasanter  than  a  cave? 

"What  kind  of  furniture  do  you 
suppose  the  Cave-men  had?  What 
places  did  they  have  for  getting  fur- 
niture? (Nature.)  What  do  you 
suppose  they  used  for  bed?  (Branches 
of  trees.)  What  kind  of  trees  do  you 
think  would  have  the  best  branches? 
Let  us  go  out  and  see  if  we  can  find 
a  tree  that  would  make  a  bed."  The 
children  are  guided  hi  the  selection 
of  an  evergreen. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography  265 

"What  could  they  use  for  floor 
covering?  Did  any  of  you  ever  make 
a  playhouse  in  the  woods?  What  did 
you  use  as  a  carpet?  (Moss  and 
leaves.)  Do  you  not  think  the  Cave- 
men could  have  used  moss  and  leaves  ? 
Do  you  suppose  they  had  any  dishes  ? 
What  could  they  have  made  dishes 
of?  How  many  of  you  have  seen 
gourds?  What  do  people  make  of 
them?  What  could  the  Cave-men 
have  made  of  them?  (Bowls.)  What 
did  they  use  for  knives  and  forks? 
(Fingers.)  Does  our  furniture  make 
our  homes  nicer  than  the  homes  of 
the  Cave-men?  Why  do  we  need 
more  furniture  than  the  Cave-men 
had?  Why  can  we  get  more  than  the 
Cave-men  could?  (Results  of  edu- 
cation, invention,  and  cooperation.) 
5.    Light  and  heat  "How  do  you  think  they  could  see 

in  the  cave?  How  would  you  like 
to  depend  on  a  fire  for  your  light? 
What  else  did  the  fire  do  besides  fur- 
nish light?  Do  you  suppose  they 
could  have  lived  in  the  cave  in  the 
summer?  Why  not?  Could  they 
have  lived  in  the  cave  without  fire? 
Why  not?  I  do  not  know  whether 
they  went  back  to  the  brush  huts  in 
th'e  summer  or  not,  but  I  dare  say 
they  did.  What  kind  of  lights  do  we 
have?  Are  these  better  than  fire- 
light? Why?  Why  do  we  need  bet- 
ter lights?  What  has  helped  us  to 
have  better  ones?"  (Education,  in- 
vention, and  cooperation.) 

Summary:     "How  many  will  be 
ready  to  tell  mother  about  the  hom« 


266  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

of  the  Cave-men?  What  will  you 
tell  her  ?"  The  child  should  be  helped 
to  organize  his  knowledge. 

First,  Second,  or  Third  Grades 

I.  Subject:    Nature  Study. 

II.  Topic:    The  Rabbit. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:  (1)  To  help  the  child  to  dis- 
cover the  physical  characteristics  of  the  rabbit  as  a 
means  for  escaping  dangers. 

IV.  Lesson  Outline: 

1.  Food 

2.  Home 

3.  Enemies 

4.  Physical  characteristics 

a.  legs 

b.  ears 

c.  eyes 

d.  nose 

e.  color 

f.  lip 

g.  cleansing  methods 

V.  Child's  Motive:  (1)  To  discover  the  food  of  rab- 
bit. (2)  To  learn  of  the  rabbit's  home.  (3)  To  dis- 
cover how  he  is  protected  from  his  enemies.  (4)  To 
discover  how  he  cleans  himself. 

VI.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 

Subject-Matter  Procedure 

The  teacher  should  have  a  pet  rab- 
bit in  the  room.  The  children  should 
be  allowed  to  look  at  the  rabbit  and 
play  with  it  before  she  begins  to 
direct  their  attention. 


History,  Nature  Study,  Geography 


267 


1.    Food 


2.    Home 


3.    Enemies 


iysi 

ical  character- 

istics : 

a. 

legs 

b. 

ears 

c. 

eyes 

d. 

nose 

e. 

color 

f. 

HP 

g. 

cleansing 

method 

"Who  would  like  to  feed  the  rab- 
bit? What  does  it  eat?  How  could 
we  find  out?  Suppose  we  give  it 
several  different  things  and  watch  to 
see  which  it  eats? 

"Where  do  rabbits  live?  Did  you 
ever  find  a  rabbit's  nest  or  home? 
What  was  it  like?"  If  children  have 
never  seen  a  rabbit's  nest,  the  teach- 
er should  take  them  to  see  one, 
either  a  wild  or  tame  rabbit's  nest. 
"What  was  it  lined  with?  Why  do 
you  suppose  she  lines  it  with  grass 
and  hair?  What  do  you  think  the 
coverlet  is  for? 

"Did  you  ever  see  any  one  kill  a 
rabbit  ?  Does  he  have  other  enemies  ? 
How  do  you  suppose  he  ever  'escapes 
so  many  enemies?  Let  us  see  if  we 
can  find  out. 

"Are  the  rabbit's  legs  just  alike? 
What  is  the  difference?  What  good 
does  it  do  him  to  have  these  long 
legs?  How  would  that  help  him  es- 
cape his   enemies? 

"Do  you  see  anything  that  would 
help  him  to  know  when  he  was  in 
danger?  What  good  are  such  big 
ears  to  him?  What  else  is  there 
about  his  ears  that  would  help  him 
to  detect  danger? 

"Do  you  see  how  his  eyes  would 
help  him  to  escape  his  enemies? 

"Look  at  his  nose  and  tell  me  what 
you  see.  Why  do  you  suppose  it 
moves  all  the  time?"  (Scenting  dan- 
gers.) 

"What  color  is  a  wild  rabbit?  Do 
you   see   anything   in   the   fields   and 


268  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


woods  that  is  about  the  same  color? 
Then,  how  would  the  rabbit's  color 
help  him  to  escape  his  enemies? 

"Look  at  his  upper  lip.  Do  you 
see  anything  peculiar  about  it  ?  What 
good  do  you  suppose  that  it?  Would 
that  aid  him  in  getting  scent  with  his 
nose?  Did  you  ever  see  a  small  fruit 
tree  which  a  rabbit  had  gnawed? 
How  would  this  split  lip  help  him  in 
gnawing  trees? 

"Does  the  rabbit  ever  get  dirty? 
How  do  you  suppose  he  cleans  him- 
self? I  want  you  to  watch  our  rab- 
bit and  see  if  you  can  find  out. 

"Are  you  able  yet  to  tell  any  of 
the  food  which  he  eats?"  (Bark  and 
anything  eaten  since  the  beginning 
of  the  lesson.)  "I  want  you  to  watch 
for  several  days  and  we  will  give  him 
different  things  and  find  out  just 
what  he  likes/' 

Summary:  "Now  let  us  see  what 
we  have  learned.  What  will  you  tell 
your  mother  about  the  rabbit?"  The 
teacher  helps  the  children  to  organ- 
ize their  knowledge  and  then  has 
different  ones  suggest  what  they  will 
tell  at  home. 


REFERENCES 

Schwatka,   Children   of  the   Cold 

Campbell,  The  Story  of  Little  Metsu 

Chase,  Children  of  the  Wigwam 

Dynes,  Socializing  the  Child 

Dopp,  The  Tree-dwellers 

Dopp,  The  Early  Cave-men 

Burton,  Story  of  the  Indian  of  New  England 


History,  Nature  Study,,  Geography  269 

Earle,  Child  Life  of  the  Colonial  Days 
Earle,  Home  Life  in  Colonial  Days 
Andrews,  Seven  Little  Sisters 
Carpenter,  Geographical  Readers 

Macgregor,  The  Story  of  France  Told  to  Boys  and  Girls 
Curriculum  of  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School 
Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools,  Western  Illinois  State 
Normal 


CHAPTER  XX 
HANDWORK 
AIM      • 

The  desire  to  express  ideas  with  any  material  at  hand 
is  instinctive.  With  the  child  it  tends  to  find  expression 
in  some  form  of  handwork.  Considerable  attention  is 
being  given  to  this  form  of  work  as  teachers  have  realized 
that  the  more  ways  thought  can  be  expressed  the  clearer 
it  becomes. 

The  aims  in  handwork  are  (1)  to  help  the  child  gain 
clear-cut  images  or  thoughts;  (2)  to  train  him  to  addi- 
tional avenues  of  expression;  (3)  To  train  the  will  to 
accomplishment  through  purposeful  effort. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

Handwork  takes  two  forms,  that  of  free  expression, 
and  that  which  is  directed  because  it  represents  some 
historical  or  geographical  fact.  The  teacher  should 
ever  be  on  the  alert  for  any  indication  of  a  tendency  to 
express  thought  in  either  words  or  by  motor  activity. 
Especially  should  she  watch  for  and  encourage  any  ten- 
dency to  creative  work.  Only  through  creative  work 
does  the  child  attain  the  best  growth.  Dynes1  says, 
"Every  child  must  do  in  order  to  know.  .  .  .  Every 
thought  tends  to  issue  in  some  form  of  motor  activity; 


Socializing  the  Child. 

270 


Handwork  271 


and  unless  the  motor  phase  is  developed,  the  idea  does 
not  come  to  completeness."  The  child  should  be  con- 
stantly encouraged  to  give  expression  to  his  ideas  through 
handwork.  The  literature  studied  should  furnish  a  rich 
field  for  this  free  expression  type. 

There  are  several  different  forms  of  handwork  in  the 
primary  grades ;  namely,  clay  molding,  freehand  paper 
cutting,  paper  folding,  spool  knitting,  mat  weaving,  and 
drawing.  The  selection  of  the  form  should  be  governed 
by  the  idea  to  be  expressed. 

When  using  clay  the  child  should  learn  of  the  com- 
mercial uses  to  which  clay  is  put;  something  of  its  life 
history,  and  something  of  the  workers  who  devote  their 
time  to  this  work.  He  should  recognize  these  workers 
as  people  who  are  serving  mankind.  In  the  study  of  clay 
he  should  be  taken  for  a  visit  to  a  clay  bank  and  some- 
thing of  the  process  of  the  mining  explained  to  him. 
Then,  by  the  use  of  pictures  he  should  be  given  some  idea 
of  the  process  through  which  clay  is  taken  in  the  manu- 
facture of  dishes. 

When  using  paper,  its  use  and  the  source  from  which 
the  materials  come  should  be  discussed. 

In  the  work  with  the  furniture,  he  should  be  taught 
something  of  the  industries  by  which  furniture  is  made, 
also  something  of  the  source  of  the  material. 

In  all  this  work  the  aim  should  be  to  give  the  child 
an  insight  into  the  world  of  industry.  Through  this  his 
sympathies  should  be  broadened  and  thereby  he  will  be 
brought  into  closer  touch  with  the  lives  of  the  workmen 
who  make  the  material  things  of  life. 

COURSE   OF   STUDY 
This  course  of  study  is  offered  merely  to  suggest 


272  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

the  possibilities  of  handwork  as  an  expression  of 
thought.  If  the  teacher  thoroughly  understands  the 
idea,  she  should  find  a  wealth  of  material  to  use.  The 
outlines  are  based  on  the  course  of  study  given  in  the 
chapters  on  Literature,  and  on  History,  Nature  Study, 
and  Geography. 

First  Grade 

I.  Literature  and  Reading.  The  stories  and  poems 
developed  in  literature  and  reading  are  illustrated  by  <clay, 
paper  folding,  or  paper  cutting.  The  scenes  of  these 
stories  and  poems  lend  themselves  admirably  to  the  sand- 
table,  scrap-book,  or  poster.  The  story  of  "The  Wonder 
Flower"  given  in  Chapter  VIII,  pages  102  to  103,  is  used 
in  either  of  these  ways.  In  the  sand-table  work  Carl, 
the  mother,  the  home,  the  mountains,  flowers,  sheep, 
river,  and  trees  are  duplicated.  Carl  and  the  mother  are 
represented  by  small  dolls,  the  home  folded  from  paper 
or  cardboard,  the  mountains  represented  by  sand,  etc. 
The  type  of  home  and  the  costumes  worn  by  the  people 
of  the  country  in  which  Carl  lived  should  be  studied. 
As  the  story  progresses  other  features  are  added.  The 
child  should  be  allowed  to  suggest  and  work  out  his  own 
ideas  and  to  plan  the  arrangement. 

A  poster  or  scrap-book  is  made  by  cutting  the  house, 
mountains,  sheep,  etc.,  in  silhouette  and  arranging  them 
so  that  they  will  tell  the  story. 

In  the  literature,  the  story  of  the  "Three  Bears,"  given 
in  Chapter  XIII,  pages  167  to  169,  may  be  represented  by 
the  sand-table  or  poster.  On  the  sand-table  the  woodland 
scene  with  the  house  of  the  Three  Bears  should  be  made. 
The  house  is  constructed  either  of  cardboard  or  of  three 
or  four  small  boxes.     The  house  is  furnished  with  fur- 


Handwork  273 


niture  made  of  paper.  The  three  bears  are  either  cut 
or  molded.  The  little  girl  is  represented  by  a  small  doll 
or  clothes  pin,  or  is  cut  from  paper.  A  poster  may  also  be 
made  similar  to  that  of  'The  Wonder  Flower." 

In  the  poem  of  the  "Two  Kittens,"  given  in  Chapter 
XIII,  pages  175  to  176,  the  story  is  represented  by  the 
sand-table  or  the  poster.  The  house,  the  kittens,  the 
mouse,  the  old  woman,  and  the  broom  are  placed  on  the 
sand-table;  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  made  of 
cotton;  a  mat  is  placed  at  the  door.  This  is  made  of 
paper  or  from  a  chain  made  on  a  spool  knitter. 

a.  Stories,  narrative  poems,  and  rhymes  from  the 
readers. 

(1)  Stories:  The  Three  Pigs,  The  Three  Bears. 
The  Musicians  of  Bremen,  The  Hen  and  the  Grain  of 
Wheat,  The  Fox  and  the  Little  Red  Hen,  Little  Red 
Riding  Hood,  The  Elves  and  the  Shoemaker,  and  other 
stories  used  in  literature. 

(2)  Poems:  The  Two  Kittens,  The  Swing,  Mother 
Goose  Rhymes,  and  other  narrative  poems. 

II.  History,  Geography,  and  Nature  Study.  The 
work  in  these  subjects  will  furnish  an  abundance  of 
material  for  the  handwork.  The  sand-table  is  especially 
valuable  in  the  history  work.  The  poster  and  the  scrap- 
book  are  also  very  helpful  in  adding  interest  and  motive, 
and  in  giving  understanding  to  this  work. 

The  handwork  in  history  will  require  more  direction 
than  that  in  literature  as  its  purpose  is  to  represent  some 
fact.  The  child  should  be  helped  to  gain  these  images 
and  impressions  through  pictures,  reading,  stories,  and 
conversation. 

A.     Home 

1.     The  Family: 


274  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


a.  Freehand  cutting :  Posters  to  represent  the  work 
of  the  mother,  the  father,  and  the  children. 

b.  Clay:  Mold  articles  used  in  the  work  of  the 
family,  as  a  tub",  an  iron,  a  wash-board. 

c.  Paper  folding :  Fold  a  needle-book,  a  wash-bench, 
a  work-table. 

d.  Scrap-book:  Show  how  to  lighten  the  mother's 
work  by  using  pictures  from  magazines  in  a  poster  or 
scrap-book. 

2.     Love  and  Politeness: 

a.     Freehand   paper   cutting:    A  poster   showing  the 
different  things  that  can  be  done  for  parents; 
B.     The  Family  and  the  Community 
1.     Family  and  Community  Pleasures: 

a.  Paper  cutting :    Cut  toys  for  a  poster. 

b.  Paper  folding:  Weave  paper  mats  of  two  colors 
to  make  Christmas  toys  and  a  cornucopia. 

c.  Scrap-book  or  posters:  Cut  pictures  from  maga- 
zine's showing  the  different  ways  to  travel;  cut  pictures 
of  articles  used  in  making  a  home  attractive;  make  a 
book  or  poster  of  flowers. 

d.  Clay:  Mold  a  drinking  fountain  for  birds  and 
pets ;  mold  a  flower  pot ;  mold  toys. 

e.  Sand-table. 

(1)  Picnic  scene:  Make  a  picnic  ground  on  the 
sand-table  using  trees,  swing  made  of  twine  and  card- 
board, benches,  grass,  and  a  spring  made  of  blue  paper 
under  glass. 

(2)  Thanksgiving:  On  one  edge  of  the  table  make 
the  ocean,  using  blue  paper  under  glass;  make  a  forest 
on  the  remainder  of  the  table;  near  the  water  place  an 
Indian  settlement  consisting  of  wigwams  and  Indians; 
have  a  papoose  cradle  on  a  tree :  in  the  water  place  a 


Handwork  275 


canoe;  Indian  tools  may  be  placed  near;  on  the  ocean 
place  the  Mayflower;  near  the  water  make  the  Pilgrims' 
settlement,  consisting  of  log  cabins  and  the  Pilgrims; 
place  vegetables  near  the  cabin.  A  pilgrims'  cradle  may 
be  used  in  this  scene  also. 

(3)  Christmas:  Make  a  desert  with  an  oasis  consist- 
ing of  palm  trees,  grass,  and  water;  cut  camels  with 
mounted  wise  men  and  place  on  desert;  on  another  part 
place  the  village  of  Bethlehem  with  the  inn  and  stable ; 
on  the  hills  in  the  background  place  the  shepherds  with 
their  sheep. 

(4)  Eskimo:  Use  cotton  to  represent  snow ;  sprinkle 
coarse  salt  or  powdered  mica  over  cotton  to  make  it 
glisten ;  on  the  table  place  house  or  igloo,  dogs  and  sleds 
made  of  bone  or  paper,  white  polar  bear,  Eskimos,  ice 
hole,  seal,  reindeer. 

(5)  Washington's  Birthday:  Represent  a  Colonial 
scene  with  log  cabin,  fort,  flag,  arid  soldiers. 

(6)  Japanese  Scene:  Represent  house,  people  in 
costume,  jinriksha,  volcano  in  the  background,  parasols, 
fans,  kites,  cherry  trees,  dolls. 

C.     Supplying  Material  Needs  in  the  Home 

1.  Food: 

a.  Free  hand  cutting:  fruits  and  vegetables  used  in 
a  poster. 

b.  Scrap-book:  pictures  cut  from  magazines  show- 
ing farm  life. 

c.  Clay :   mold  fruits  and  vegetables. 

d.  Sand-table:  make  a  farm  scene  on  the  sand-table 
showing  a  house,  barn,  fence,  animals,  garden,  and 
fields. 

2.  Clothing: 

a.     Scrap-book    of    "How    We    Are    Clothed."      Foi 


276  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

example,  have  pictures  of  cotton  plant,  bale  of  cotton,, 
cotton  mill,  store,  boy  or  girl  in  new  dress. 

b.  Spool  knitting:  knit  a  long  chain  and  sew  into  a 
cap  or  a  muff. 

3.     Shelter: 

a.  Scrap-book:  "How  We  are  Housed."  For  ex- 
ample, have  pictures  of  trees,  lumber  mill,  foundation, 
buckets  of  paint,  samples  of  wall  paper.  Make  posters 
showing  the  work  of  each  workman. 

b.  Clay :  mold  brick. 

c.  Doll  House :  Secure  five  small  boxes  of  either  card- 
board or  wood  and  use  two  on  the  top  and  three  below 
with  open  sides  out;  the  rooms  are  as  follows:  living- 
room,  dining-room,  kitchen,  and  bedrooms;  the  house  is 
now  ready  to  furnish;  the  walls  are  papered  or  colored 
with  crayon ;  the  rugs  for  the  floor  are  cut  out  of  maga- 
zines or  knit  with  yarn  or  Germantown  wool  on  a  spool 
knitter ;  the  furniture  is  folded  from  paper.  . 

Second  Grade 

I.     Literature  and  Reading. 

1.  Stories,  poems,  and  events  from  the  readers. 

2.  Stories:  Hansell  and  Grethel,  Ugly  Duckling, 
Beauty  and  Beast,  Cinderella,  Robinson  Crusoe,  Alad- 
din's Lamp,  and  other  stories  used  in  literature. 

2.  Poems:  Hiawatha,  Foreign  Lands,  The  Spider 
and  the  Fly,  and  other  narrative  and  descriptive  poems. 

II.     History,  Geography,  and  Nature  Study. 

1.     Present  Day  Problems: 

a.  Paper-folding:  The  pupils  of  this  grade  will  be 
interested  in  furnishing  a  doll  house ;  encourage  them  to 
work  out  original  designs ;  work  out  the  pieces  given  in 
the  first  grade  and  add  some  additional  pieces. 


Handwork  277 


b.  Paper  Cutting:  posters  of  vegetables,  fruits,  flow- 
ers, birds,  trees,  animals. 

c.  Clay :  mold  fruits  and  vegetables. 

d.  Scrap-book:  Use  magazine  pictures  to  illustrate 
the  life  story  of  coal  or  of  an  article  of  furniture ;  illus- 
trate the  life  of  the  present  day  by  showing  the  house, 
people,  food,  clothing,  pleasures,  schools,  etc. 

2.  Primitive  Day  Problems: 

a.  Sand-table:  Tree-dwellers.  Study  the  type  of 
house  from  the  picture  as  to  its  shape  and  material ;  then 
duplicate  this  as  nearly  as  possible  in  materials;  place 
wild  animals  in  the  scene;  mold  Tree-dwellers  first  in 
clay,  then  when  the  general  characteristics  of  the  fea- 
tures have  been  worked  out  mold  in  a  cornstarch  and 
salt  compound  colored  properly  with  crepe  paper  or 
paint.  If  this  is  not  practicable  use  pictures  of  the 
people;  mold  implements  and  tools  of  clay. 

b.  Represents  the  country  of  the  Cave-men  in  the 
same  way  as  for  the  Tree-dwellers.  Close  study  of  pic- 
tures will  be  necessary  if  the  child  is  to  gain  the  correct 
idea  of  these  historical  facts. 

c.  Weaving:  Mat  weaving  to  represent  the  weaving 
of  the  baskets  of  the  Cave-women. 

d.  Paper  tearing  or  cutting:  Animals  that  lived  in 
caves  and  woods. 

e.  Clay:  Mold  gourds  used  for  bowls,  tools  and  im- 
plements, baskets,  a  cave,  and  a  mammoth. 

Additional  suggestions  for  things  to  do  will  be  found 
in  Katherine  Dopps'  books  on  the  Cave-men  and  Tree- 
dwellers. 

3.  Colonial  Day  Problems: 

a.  Scrap-book  and  posters:  Make  books  or  posters 
showing  Colonial  life  and  Indian  life. 


278  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


b.  Clay :  Mold  bows  and  arrows,  flint,  canoe,  papoose 
cradle. 

c.  Sand-tables:  Work  out  a  table  similar  to  the 
Thanksgiving  and  Washington  Birthday  sand-tables  in 
the  first  grade. 

Third  Grade 

I.     Literature  and  Reading. 

I.  Stories,  poems,  and  informational  lessons  from 
the  readers. 

a.  Stories:  Robinson  Crusoe,  The  Wonderful  Lamp, 
Rip  Van  Winkle,  Dog  of  Flanders,  Alice  in  Wonderland, 
The  Hero  of  Haarlim,  and  other  stories  used  in  the 
literature  work. 

b.  Poems :  Hiawatha,  and  other  descriptive  and  nar- 
rative poems. 

II.  History,  Geography,  and  Nature  Study. 

The  work  in  this  grade  will  be  largely  that  of  working 
out  sand-table  projects.  A  sand-table  should  be  worked 
out  for  each  topic  suggested-  in  Chapter  XVIII.  The 
teacher  should  lead  the  child  to  make  a  close  study  of 
pictures  and  of  the  reading  matter  in  order  to  decide 
on  the  objects  to  be  used,  and  on  the  construction  and 
arrangement  of  these  objects. 

Scrap-books  and  posters  may  also  be  made  to  repre- 
sent trips  to  the  different  countries ;  for  example,  a  train 
to  carry  the  child  to  New  York;  views  of  New  York;  a 
steamship,  etc.  Many  suggestions  for  activities  and 
handwork  will  be  found  in  "Socializing  the  Child"  by 
Dynes. 

METHOD 

The  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  the  important  fact 
that  before  an  idea  can  be  expressed  by  handwork,  there 


Handwork  279 


must  be  a  clear  image  of  the  thing  to  be  made.  In  the 
story  of  the  "Three  Bears"  the  child  must  have  a  definite 
mental  image  of  a  bear  before  he  can  mold  or  cut  one. 
These  mental  images  may  be  formed  by  the  use  of  nat- 
ural objects,  which  is  the  best  means  of  creating  them, 
or  by  the  use  of  pictures  or  drawings. 

Another  important  principle  for  the  teacher  to  recog- 
nize is  that  the  child  is  not  interested  primarily  in  the 
doing  of  handwork,  but  his  interest  is  in  what  he  is  to 
do  with  the  finished  product.  It  may  be  a  part  of  a 
sand-table  scene,  a  poster,  a  scrap-book,  or  a  gift  for 
some  one.  The  recognition  of  this  principle  will  pre- 
vent aimless  and  ofttimes  careless  work  on  the  part  of 
the  child.  The  handwork  should  always  present  some- 
thing in  the  way  of  a  problem,  but  it  should  be  one  which 
he  can  solve  without  too  much  direction  or  help.  In  all 
the  work  the  teacher  should  make  sure  that  the  child  has 
the  correct,  image  and  then  leave  him  to  work  out  the 
idea  in  his  own  way.  Even  if  the  result  is  not  so  good, 
the  child  has  made  a  gain  in  the  way  of  working  out  his 
own  problems. 

The  teacher  should  encourage  and  praise  all  faithful 
and  purposeful  effort,  and  especially  commend  any  sign 
of  creative  work.  When  the  child  is  working  out  a 
story  of  a  problem  he  should  be  held  to  that  task  and 
not  permitted  to  make  objects  foreign  to  the  matter  in 
hand. 

Posters.  The  idea  of  the  poster  is  to  express  a  thought 
or  story  by  means  of  freehand  paper  cutting.  This  paper 
cutting  should  be  freehand,  else  its  value  is  in  a  large 
measure  lost.  Only  silhouette  cutting  should  be  attempted. 
The  teacher  should  be  sure  that  the  child  has  the  correct 
image  before  he  begins  to  cut.     He  should  begin  with 


280  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


very  simple  objects  such  as  fruit  or  a  ball.  After  the 
object  is  cut  it  should  be  arranged  and  pasted  on  a  large 
piece  of  paper  of  darker  color.  The  cuttings  should  be 
arranged  so  they  will  tell  the  story  represented. 

Scrap-books.  To  make  a  scrap-book  the  child  may  fold 
together  several  large  sheets  of  paper  and  fasten  in  the 
fold.  A  picture  or  a  suitable  title  is  placed  on  the  out- 
side sheet.  Pictures  are  cut,  arranged,  and  pasted  so  as 
to  tell  the  story  suggested  on  the  outside. 

Doll  House.  A  doll  house  may  be  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  Several  boxes  about  eighteen  inches 
square  and  several  inches  deep  are  secured.  These  are 
arranged  with  the  open  sides  out  so  as  to  form  two  or  three 
rooms  below  and  two  above.  An  extra  piece  of  card- 
board should  be  placed  in  roof  fashion  over  the  top; 
windows  and  doors  may  be  cut  in  each  room;  the  walls 
may  be  finished  by  papering  or  by  coloring  with  crayons ; 
the  color  schemes  should  be  carefully  watched.  Each 
child  should  be  encouraged  to  have  a  doll  house  at  home. 
Considerable  pleasure  and  profit  should  result  from  the 
furnishing  of  this  house.  The  different  articles  of  furni- 
ture, the  relative  size  of  each  piece,  the  placing  of  the 
furniture,  etc.,  will  have  to  be  decided.  The  proper  care 
of  rooms,  etc.,  will  furnish  material  for  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  child.  He  should  first  be  allowed  to 
try  to  make  the  different  articles  of  furniture.  If  he 
succeeds  he  should  be  praised.  Should  he  find  the  task 
too  difficult,  he  is  then  ready  for  simple  directions  from 
the  teacher. 

Sand-table.  The  sand-table  is  a  very  necessary  article 
in  the  handwork  course.  One  can  easily  be  made  accord- 
ing to  the  following  directions:  a  shallow  box,  any  size 
desired   (the  bigger  the  better),  is  placed  on  legs,  lined 


Handwork  281 


with  paper  and  filled  with  the  cleanest  sand  procurable. 

In  working  out  the  stories  on  the  sand-table  the  child 
should  be  allowed  the  privilege  of  expressing  his  own 
ideas  as  to  the  objects  used  and  as  to  the  arrangement 
of  these  objects.  In  history  or  geography  the  teacher 
will  have  to  guide  him  in  the  selection  and  arrangement 
of  the  objects  so  as  really  to  represent  the  historical  or 
geographical  scene.  This  may  be  done  by  guiding  him  in 
making  a  close  study  of  pictures,  by  careful  reading,  or 
by  listening  to  readings  which  describe  the  scenes.  He 
should  be  trained  to  verify  his  judgments  and  opinions 
by  reference  to  pictures  and  books.  The  teacher  should 
guard  against  a  false  idea  on  the  part  of  the  child  as  to 
size  and  distance  on  the  sand-table.  He  should  be  taught 
that  a  sand-table  does  not  duplicate  the  scene  but  simply 
represents  it  in  a  very  miniature  way.  This  idea  can 
best  be  developed  by  making  the  first  table  to  represent 
a  scene  with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar ;  for  example, 
the  schoolhouse  and  grounds.  In  this  way  he  will  see 
how  much  smaller  the  sand-table  is  than  the  real  thing. 

Water  is  represented  by  blue  paper  under  glass ;  snow 
is  represented  by  cotton  with  coarse  salt  or  powdered 
mica  sprinkled  over  it;  people  are  represented  by  small 
dolls,  clothespins,  miniature  people  cut  out  of  paper,  or 
by  pictures ;  trees  are  represented  by  twigs  and  small 
branches  from  trees;  other  objects  may  be  molded  in 
clay,  cut  out  of  paper,  or  made  by  paper  folding. 

Materials.  If  money  is  available  the  teacher  can 
procure  construction  paper,  scissors,  clay,  crayons,  paste, 
and  all  other  supplies  from  A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chi- 
cago. Catalogue  giving  complete  descriptions,  prices,  etc., 
will  be  sent  without  charge  upon  request. 

1.     The  construction  paper  comes  in  many  different 


282  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

shades  and  is  very  desirable  from  the  artistic  standpoint. 
However,  if  money  is  not  available  the  teacher  can  carry 
forward  this  work  with  material  which  she  can  procure 
with  little  expense.  For  paper-folding  and  paper-cutting 
newspaper,  wrapping  paper,  and  old  magazines  may  be 
used. 

2.  Scissors:  Usually  the  teacher  can  get  each  child 
to  buy  a  pair  of  small  scissors  (costing  only  10  or  15 
cents).  If  it  is  not  practicable  to  have  scissors,  the  object 
may  be  torn  by  placing  the  thumbs  and  first  fingers  very 
close  together  and  tearing  only  a  small  bit  at  a  time. 

3.  Clay:  Very  often  clay  suitable  for  this  work  will 
be  found  in  clay  banks  near  the  school.  However,  as  this 
must  be  screened,  sifted,  washed,  and  properly  mixed 
with  water  to  be  of  service,  the  teacher  is  advised  to  buy 
a  pound  or  two  of  the  clay  which  never  hardens  and  can 
be  used  over  and  over. 

When  an  especially  good  piece  of  work  is  to  be  kept 
for  a  permanent  exhibit,  it  may  be  remolded,  using  the 
following  preparation:  1  part  salt,  2  parts  cornstarch. 
Mix  to  a  paste  with  boiling  water.  Set  on  the  stove 
and  boil  until  thick,  stirring  constantly.  This  will  not 
harden  for  two  or  three  days. 

4.  Paste:  Paste  may  be  purchased  in  quantity  from 
A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago,  or  the  teacher  can  make 
her  own  paste  according  to  the  following  formula :  Mix 
flour  and  , water  to  form  a  thick  paste.  Add  enough 
alum  to  keep  from  souring.  Cook  until  thick,  stirring  to 
prevent  scorching.     This  will  keep  for  several  days. 

5.  Paper  Cutter:  A  good  paper  cutter  will  be  a  great 
asset,  not  only  in  this  work,  but  in  the  many  other  activ- 
ities of  the  school.  It  will  be  best  to  invest  in  a  good 
standard  cutter  rather  than  one  of  inferior  quality. 


Handwork  283 


6.  Pantograph:  A  pantagraph  for  enlarging  or  de- 
creasing the  size  of  pictures  can  be  used  to  an  advantage 
in  this  work. 

7.  Hectograph:  In  some  of  the  sand-table  projects, 
'it  will  be  necessary  to  have  outline  pictures  for  the  child 
to  cut  by.  These  should  be  used  only  when  the  free- 
hand cutting  is  beyond  his  ability.  These  pictures  can 
be  prepared  in  a  very  short  time  .with  a  hectograph.  A 
hectograph  may  be  purchased  from  A.  Flanagan  Com- 
pany, Chicago,  or  the  teacher  can  make  one  according 
to  the  following  directions :  Gelatine  4  ounces,  glycerine 
24  ounces  or  1J4  pints;  soak  gelatine  12  hours  in  just 
enough  water  to  cover ;  pour  off  water  and  cook  to  200° 
Fahrenheit ;  place  a  shallow  pan  in  a  level  place  and  pour 
in  the  mixture ;  remove  all  bubbles  with  a  blotter ;  allow 
the  solution  to  harden.  Copying  ink  may  be  purchased 
from  the  same  company,  or  made  from  the  following 
formula : 

Duplicator  Ink:  1  ounce  dark  green  aniline  or  1 
ounce  methyl  violet  aniline ;  1  ounce  glycerine,  10  ounces 
rainwater. 

LESSON  J>LANS 

In  the  lesson  in  handwork  the  teacher  should  strive 
to  develop  the  child's  initiative  and  individuality.  Di- 
rections or  set  ways  of  making  an  object  are  avoided  as 
much  as  possible.  She  should  endeavor  to  give  him  a 
clear  mental  image  of  the  problem  in  hand  and  then 
encourage  him  to  work  out  the  problem  in  his  own  way. 
After  he  has  a  clear  idea  of  a  bear  in  connection  with 
the  story  of  "The  Three  Bears,"  he  is  given  clay  and  is 
told  to  make  a  bear,  or  he  is  given  paper,  scissors,  and 
paste  and  is  told  to  make  the  big  bear's  chair.     At  first 


284  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


his  efforts  are  very  crude,  but  after  a  few  weeks  of  this 
work  it  is  marvelous  what  he  is  able  to  do.  In  this  work 
he  is  developing  not  only  self-reliance,  but  the  power 
of  expressing  his  ideas  in  a  clear,  forceful  style.  After 
he  has  done  his  best  and  fails,  the  teacher  may  give* 
him  the  directions  for  working  out  the  problems.  How- 
ever, this  should  not  be  done  until  the  child  feels  the 
need  for  it. 

Pictures  of  the  models  and  directions  for  making  them 
will  be  found  in  the  following  books : 

Dyer,  The  Cut  Out  Book. 

Goodrich,  With  Scissors  and  Paste. 

Bowker,  Busy  Hands  Construction  Work. 

Latter,  How  to  Teach  Paper-Folding. 

McGaw,  Construction  Work  For  Rural  and  Elemen- 
tary Schools. 

Schneidewendt,  How  to  Make  Baskets. 

(All  the  above  published  by  A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago). 

Layard    and    Brackenfeld,    Primary    Manual    Work. 
(Milton  Bradley  Co.,  New  York.) 

McCormack,  Spool  Knitting.     (A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co., 
New  York.) 

Seegmiller,  Primary  Handwork.     (Atkinson,  Mentzer 
&  Co.,  Chicago.) 

REFERENCES 

Layard  and  Brackenfeld,  Primary  Manual  Work 

Dynes,  Socializing  the  Child 

Seegmiller,  Primary  Handwork 

Curriculum  of  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School 

Dopp,  The  Tree-dwellers,  and  The  Early  Cave-men 


CHAPTER  XXI 

MUSIC 

AIM 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  modes  of  expressing  thought 
is  through  music.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  thoughts 
of  the  world  are  expressed  in  this  way.  Music  arouses 
feeling  and  emotion  as  does  no  other  form  of  expression. 
It  has  the  power  of  inspiring  man  to  noble  acts  of  patriot- 
ism, heroism,  altruism,  self-sacrifice,  sympathy,  and  ten- 
derness; it  has  power  to  move  him  to  tears,  to  a  state 
of  despondency  or  joy;  it  has  the  power  to  soothe  his 
nerves,  to  quell  impatience  and  angry  passion,  and  to 
make  him  forget  worry.  It  makes  life  more  beautiful 
in  many  ways. 

The  kind  of  music  which  a  person  enjoys  and  which 
will  influence  him  depends  upon  his  experience  and  his 
training  in  interpretation  of  music.  The  music  of  the 
Chinese  does  not  carry  the  same  message  to  an  American 
that  it  does  to  the  Chinaman.  Neither  does  the  classic 
music  carry  a  message  to  the  man  not  musically  educated. 

If  the  child  is  to  be  fully  developed,  he  should  not  be 
denied  the  pleasure  which  comes  through  this  very  im- 
portant mode  of  expression.  It  is  the  opinion  of  ex- 
perienced music  teachers  that  practically  every  one  could 
be  trained  to  sing  if  this  training  were  begun  in  the 
early  years.     Be  that  as  it  may,  there  is  no  doubt  that 

285 


286 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


the  appreciation  of  good  music  is  a  matter  of  training — 
a  training  which  is  possible  to  practically  every  individual. 
As  in  literature,  this  training  should  begin  in  the  early, 
formative  years. 

The  specific  purpose  in  the  early  years  is  to  develop 
the  child's  sense  for  rhythm,  cultivate  his  sense  for 
harmony  and  melody  through  the  use  of  song  and 
musical  instrument,  and  to  train  him  to  express  himself 
through  music. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

As  in  language  music  has  its  beginning  in  imitation, 
therefore  this  is  the  natural  way  to  begin  training  in 
musical  expression  inasmuch  as  tone  element  is  learned 
only  through  the  ear. 

The   first  step  is   tone   matching;   for   example,   bird 


u  w    , 

calls.     The 

\       J         1 

teacher  sings 

In           J 

ly           * 

"Cuck-oo" 

0  " 

answers 

A        J         1 

fh           J 

\!\J             * 

J 

and   the   child 


The  call  of  the 
"Cuck-oo"  whip-poor-will, 

bob-white,  and  chic-a-dee,  also  are  used.    Tone  matching 
is  also  developed  through  the  roll-call.    The  teacher  sings 


and  the  child 
answers  by  singing 


Tt 


* 


'Mary' 


Tm  here' 


Music 


287 


This  is  followed  by  the  rote  song  which  is  used  to 
give  the  child  an  easy  means  of  expressing  himself  music- 
ally; as  the  means  of  developing  a  strong  feeling  for 
rhythm  and  tune ;  and  to  train  the  mind  to  recognize  and 
to  think  melody.  Practically  all  the  work  of  these  early 
years  is  based  on  the  rote  song. 

The  morning  greeting  may  be  used  in  these  exercises 
in  tone  matching. 


J& 

- — j^ 

-j- 

J 

=^= 

±±+= 

(Teacher)    "How  do  you  do?"    (Child)   "I'm  well,  thank  you." 

A  game  of  echo  in  which  the  teacher  calls,  "I'm  com- 
ing," or  sings,  "Throw  the  ball,"  is  excellent.  The  teacher 
gives  the  call  and  the  child  echoes. 


) — 
-/St— 

<><>  jJ 

4 

9-* J~ 

k  * 

it 

0 

?        J    J 

"I  am  coming." 


"Throw  the  ball.' 


The  greatest  of  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  rote  song.  It  should  be  rhythmic  and  melod- 
ious, not  too  low  or  too  high,  and  the  word-content  should 
be  interesting  and  within  the  child's  experience.  The 
opportunities  offered  by  nature  study,  special  days,  and 
holidays  should  be  taken  advantage  of  as  this  will  add 
interest  and  motive  to  the  work.  A'  correlation  with 
literature,  reading,  and  social  life  should  give  purpose 
and  meaning  to  the  work. 


288  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


COURSE  OF  STUDY 

This  course  of  study  is  offered  as  a  suggestion  to 
the  teacher  who  has  had  no  musical  training.  Conse- 
quently it  is  very  simple  in  form  and  does  not  contain 
many  of  the  features  which  would  be  in  the  course  of 
study  of  a  trained  teacher. 

First,  Second,  and  Third  Grades 

I.  Tone  matching  through  bird  calls,  roll  call,  morn- 
ing greeting,  and  a  game  of  echo.  Continue  until  prac- 
tically all  the  class  can  respond  accurately. 

II.  Rote  songs;  improvement  in  tone  and  pronun- 
ciation through  efforts  to  express  the  thought  of  the  song. 

III.  Rote  songs  continued  as  a  basis  of  further  work 
in  melody,  rhythm,  ear  training,  self-expression,  and  in- 
terpretation. 

Material  for  rote  songs  may  be  found  in  any  of  the 
following  books : 

Small  Songs  for  Small  Singers,  Neidlinger  (G. 
Schirmer,  New  York)  ;  Children's  Singing  Games,  Hofer 
(A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago)  ;  First  Year  Music,  Dann 
(American  Book  Co.,  New  York)  ;  Songs  of  the  Child's 
World,  Nos.  1  and  2,  Gaynor  (John  Church  Co.)  ;  Holi- 
day Songs  and  Games,  Poulsson;  Nature  Study  for  Chil- 
dren, Knowlton  (Milton  Bradley,  Atlanta,  Ga.)  ;  Song 
Primer,  Teacher's  Book,  Bentley;  Song  Series  Book  I, 
Bentley;  (A.  S.  Barnes)  ;  Music  Course,  Book  I,  Eleanor 
Smith  (Silver  Burdett)  ;  Lyric  Music  Primer,  Foreman; 
Modern  Music  Primer,  Eleanor  Smith  (Silver  Burdett)  ; 
Songs  of  Life  and  Nature,  Smith  (Silver  Burdett); 
Songs  for  Little  Children,  Smith  (Milton  Bradley); 
Mother  Goose  Set  to  Music,  Elliot  (McLaughlin)  ;  Edu- 


Music  289 


cational  Music  Series,  Teacher's  Edition  (Ginn  &  Co.) ; 
The  Public  School  Song  Book,  Schoen  and  Gilbreath 
(A.  S.  Barnes  Co.,  New  York). 

METHOD 

As  previously  suggested,  the  work  in  music  begins 
with  the  exercises  in  tone  matching.  These  exercises 
should  be  continued  until  the  child  is  rather  proficient 
in  his  response  to  any  tone. 

Very  often  a  child  will  be  found  to  be  a  monotone; 
that  is,  he  does  not  seem  to  have  the  ability  to  vary  his 
tone,  and  it  is  pitched  on  a  low  key.  This  child  should 
have  extra  work  in  tone  matching  until  he  learns  to  place 
his  tones  properly.  In  the  work  with  the  rote  songs,  the 
teacher  should  be  careful  to  avoid  calling  attention  to  this 
defect  and  treat  the  child  exactly  as  though  his  tones 
were  normal. 

Rhythm  may  be  developed  by  clapping,  marking,  or 
beating  time  as  a  familiar  rote  song  is  sung  or  played, 
or  through  the  singing  game,  folk  dance,  action  song, 
or  march. 

The  child  is  trained  in  the  ability  to  think  melody  by 
having  the  teacher  hum  or  play  a  familiar  song  and  then 
allowing  him  to  name  it. 

In  the  work  of  each  grade  the  emphasis  should  fall  on 
the  interpretation  and  expression  of  the  thought  with 
only  enough  technique  to  enable  the  child  to  read  and 
to  interpret  simple  music. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  teacher  be  either  a  trained 
musician  or  a  good  vocalist  in  order  to  teach  music. 
These  are  valuable  assets  but  not  indispensable.  How- 
ever, an  appreciation  of  good  music  is  an  essential  qual- 


290  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


mcation  for  the  successful  teaching  of  music.  If  the 
teacher  lacks  this,  she  should  strive  to  awaken  and  to 
cultivate  this  power.  If  this  is  impossible  the  probability 
is  that  she  has  missed  her  calling  and  should  not  attempt 
to  teach  the  little  child. 

Many  teachers  have  successfully  taught  music  without 
either  the  ability  to  play  or  to  sing.  There  are  two  or 
three  ways  in  which  this  may  be  done.  First,  very  suc- 
cessful work  may  be  done  by  using  a  phonograph.  Any 
good  phonograph  company  should  be  able  to  furnish  a 
list  of  records  containing  a  number  of  appropriate  rote 
songs,  singing  games,  and  folk  dances.  Second,  the  class 
usually  has  one  or  more  pupils  who  can  lead  in  the 
singing.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  find  some  one  who  will 
teach  these  children  the  songs.  Or  there  will  probably 
be  a  pupil  from  one  of  the  more  advanced  grades  who 
will  be  glad  to  assist  in  this  work.  Very  often  some 
patron  or  friend  of  the  school  will  come  once  or  twice 
a  week  and  teach  the  songs.  Where  there  are  other  teach- 
ers in  the  school,  a  teacher  who  can  sing  will  often  ex- 
change work  with  the  teacher  who  cannot.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  "Where  there's  a  will,  there's  a  way." 

Though  it  is  not  essential  for  the  teacher  to  have  a 
technical  knowledge  of  music  or  of  the  voice,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  she  be  able  to  distinguish  between  good  and  bad 
tone  production.  A  child's  voice  is  naturally  very  light 
and  should  be  used  only  in  producing  a  light,  soft,  sweet 
tone.  It  will  take  the  utmost  vigilance  to  prevent  him 
from  using  a  coarse,  harsh,  shouting  tone  in  singing. 
Should  this  continue  it  will  often  strain  and  injure  the 
voice  beyond  repair.  Individual  work  in  music  should 
be  stressed  if  the  child  is  to  develop  to  the  extent  of 
his  ability. 


Music  291 


LESSON  PLANS 

The  presentation  of  the  rote  song  is  an  important  part 
of  the  work  as  much  depends  upon  the  teacher's  manner 
of  developing  an  interest  in  it.  Since  the  lesson  in  music 
is  the  same  type  as  that  in  literature,  it  should  be  de- 
veloped in  a  similar  manner.  Suggestions  for  these  les- 
sons were  given  in  Chapter  XIII,  pages  164  to  166  and 
pages  173  to  177.  The  following  outline  plan  for  teach- 
ing a  song  is  in  keeping  with  the  method  used  by  many 
expert  teachers  of  music. 

1.  The  word-content  is  presented  to  the  child  in  song 
and  its  meaning  developed  as  a  basis  for  a  true  inter- 
pretation of  the  melody. 

2.  The  teacher  sings  the  song  a  number  of  times  in 
order  that  the  child  may  gain  a  clear  conception  of  it. 

3.  The  first  phrase  is  then  sung  by  the  teacher  several 
times,  then  imitated  by  the  class  as  a  whole  and  by 
individual  children.  It  is  then  linked  by  the  teacher 
with  the  whole  song.  The  second  phrase  is  learned  in  the 
same  way.  Then  the  first  and  second  phrases  are  sung 
together,  and  then  the  teacher  finishes  the  entire  song. 
She  should  continue  by  phrases,  constantly  linking  them 
together  and  with  the   entire   song. 

Another  method  often  used  in  the  third  step  is  for  the 
teacher  to  sing  the  song  as  a  whole  allowing  the  child  to 
supply  the  last  syllable  or  word  of  each  phrase.  She 
then  allows  him  to  supply  two  words,  etc.  Or  the  teacher 
may  sing  the  entire  song  and  allow  the  children  to  sing 
"la ;  la !"    After  the  tune  is  familiar  he  sings  the  words. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSON 
First  Grade 

I.     Subject:    Music. 


292 


How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


II.  Topic:     Tone  matching. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:     To  train  the  child's  ear  to 
tone  values. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:    To  answer  the  bird  call  given  by 
the  teacher. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 


"Cuck-oo" 


m 


5=1 


"Bob-White' 


^ 


cChick-a-dee' 


n 


Procedure 

"Do  you  boys  and  girls  like  birds? 
Have  you  heard  them  sing?  How 
many  have  heard  a  cuckoo  sing? 
What  does  he  say?  Yes,  he  says  his 
name.  Listen  to  the  way  he  says  it." 
The  teacher  sings  "cuck-oo."  "I 
want  you  to  play  that  you  are  a  baby 
cuckoo  and  when  I  sing  cuckoo  I 
want  you  to  answer  by  singing 
cuckoo  just  as  I  do."  In  order  to 
help  the  children  gain  self-confidence 
a  little  concert  work  is  permissible, 
but  the  major  part  of  the  work 
should  be  individual  work.  The 
other  bird  calls  are  introduced  in 
the  same  manner. 


'Whip-poor-will" 


First  Grade.     (The  same  general  plan  is  used  in  the 
second  and  third  grades.) 
I.     Subject:    Music. 


Music 


293 


II.  Topic:     Rote  song,   'The  Chicken"   from   Small 
Songs  for  Small  Singers,  Neidlinger. 

III.  Teacher's  Motive:     To  guide  the  child  in  the 
proper  interpretation  of  the  song. 

IV.  Child's  Motive:     (1)    To  discover  the  thought 
of  the  song.    (2)  To  learn  the  song  to  sing  to  his  mother. 

V.  Subject-matter  and  Procedure: 


Subject-Matter 

"I    think    when    a    little 
chicken  drinks 
He  takes  the  water  in 
his  bill, 
And  then  he  holds   his 
head  way  up 
So  the  water  can  run 
down  hill." 


I    think    when    a 
chicken  drinks 


little 


Procedure 

"How  many  of  you  have  chick- 
ens? Do  you  have  any  baby  chick- 
ens? Did  you  ever  watch  them  get 
a  drink?  Show  me  how  they  drink. 
I  know  a  little  song  about  a  chicken 
drinking.  Listen  to  how  it  says  the 
little  chicken  drinks/'  The  teacher 
sings  the  song.  "How  did  it  say  he 
takes  the  water  ?  Then  what  does  he 
do?    How  does  he  hold  his  head? 

"Let  me  sing  it  again  and  see 
if  you  think  it  is  a  pretty  song."  She 
sings  the  song  again.  "Did  you  like 
it?  This  time  as  I  sing  it  I  want 
Mary  to  come  and  pretend  that  she 
is  a  little  chicken."  She  again  sings 
the  song.  "John  may  come."  The 
teacher  continues  singing  it  over  a 
number  of  times  in  order  to  give  the 
children  a  clear  concept  of  it. 

"I  want  you  to  learn  this  song 
so  you  can  sing  it  for  your  mother. 
Let  me  sing  just  that  phrase.  Listen 
again  and  then  I  am  going  to  let  you 
sing  it  for  me."  After  the  teacher 
sings  this  the  whole  class  is  allowed 
to  sing  it  two  or  three  times.  She 
then  calls  on  individual  children. 
"Let  us  all  sing  this  phrase  together 


294  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

and    then    I    will    finish    the    entire 
song."      The    teacher    sings    as    sug- 
gested.    "Let  me  sing  the  song  again 
He    takes    the    water    in      and   see  how  the   phrase   'He   takes 
his  bill.  the  water  in  his  bill'  sounds."     She 

sings  the  entire  song.  "Let  me  sing 
just  that  phrase."  The  teacher  sings 
the  phrase.  "This  time  I  want  you 
to  sing  it."  She  proceeds  as  in  the 
first  phrase.  "Let  us  sing  both 
phrases  together,  then  I  will  finish 
the  song."  She  proceeds  in  like  man- 
ner until  the  entire  song  is  learned. 

REFERENCES 

Farnsworth,  Education  Through  Music 

Dann,  First  Year  Music 

Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Course  of  Study  for 

the  Elementary  School 
The   Speyer   School   Curriculum,   Teachers   College,   Columbia 

University 
Schoen,  Music  in  the  Rural  School  and  Community 


CHAPTER  XXII 
SEAT  WORK 

AIM 

In  the  schoolroom  of  more  than  one  grade  or  of  more 
than  one  section  of  a  grade,  the  teacher  works  with  the 
child  for  only  a  part  of  the  time.  For  the  remainder  of 
the  time  he  must  engage  in  some  form  of  unsupervised 
activity.  That  he  will  engage  in  some  form  of  activity 
is  a  well-known  psychological  fact,  as  nature  has  en- 
dowed him  with  an  instinct  for  activity.  The  teacher's 
problem  is  to  supply  him  with  employment  which  is 
worth  while — that  in  which  his  mental  powers  will  be 
active  and  that  which  will  develop  habits  of  independent 
thinking  and  study,  concentrated  attention,  tenacity  of 
purpose,  and  healthy  activity. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  METHOD 

There  are  many  forms  of  seat  work  which  will  prove 
attractive,  interesting,  and  instructive.  Probably  the  most 
valuable  of  these  is  some  form  of  handwork  such  as 
clay  modeling,  paper  folding,  cutting  and  pasting,  color- 
work,  and  drawing.  Other  forms  are  colored  pegs  and 
peg  boards,  colored  sticks,  cut-up  pictures,  interesting 
pictures  with  words  for  sentence  forming,  corn,  peas, 
blocks,  empty  spools,  etc.  The  catalogue  of  any  good 
supply-house  will  furnish  many  suggestions  for  different 

295 


296  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

types  of  seat- work.  Other  valuable  sources  of  sugges- 
tions for  types  of  seat-work  will  be  found  in  educational 
journals,  and  children's  magazines. 

To  give  the  child  a  book  to  study  for  any  length  of 
time  means  asking  an  impossibility  of  him,  and  develops 
habits  of  listlessness  and  inattention  which  will  be  hard 
to  overcome.  Assigning  written  tasks  results  in  cramped 
fingers,  incorrect  habits  of  writing,  and  carelessness. 

That  the  best  results  may  be  secured,  seat- work,  should 
possess  the  following  characteristics : 

1.  When  possible  it  should  be  further  development 
or  application  of  some  previous  lesson,  as  "I  want  you 
to  tell  the  story  of  the  reading  lesson  with  the  clay." 

2.  It  should  consist  of  an  unsolved  problem  which 
is  of  interest  to  the  child,  as  "Draw  a  picture  of  the 
house  of  'The  Three  Bears'  just  as  you  think  it  looked 
and  put  in  the  furniture  which  you  think  it  had  in  it." 
After  he  has  solved  this  problem  to  his  satisfaction, 
there  is  no  problem  and  very  little  interest  or  value  in 
continuing  to  do  it.  However,  this  skill  may  be  utilized 
as  the  means  toward  the  solving  of  a  new  problem.  For 
instance,  "How  would  you  like  to  tell  the  story  of  'The 
Three  Bears'  by  picture?  What  picture  shall  we  have 
to  draw?"  Among  these  pictures  will  be  the  house  and 
furniture. 

3.  It  should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  hold  the 
child's  attention  and  interest  until  the  problem  is  solved. 
For  example,  "Did  you  ever  go  to  a  circus?  What  ani- 
mals did  you  see?  Where  were  the  animals?  How 
would  you  you  like  to  make  a  poster  showing  the  ani- 
mals you  saw  ?  I  have  a  great  number  of1  magazine  pic- 
tures of  animals  and  of  tents  here.  Let  us  see  who 
can  make  a  nice  poster.     Today  we  will  see  how  many 


Seat  Work  297 


animals  you  can  cut  out  in  fifteen  minutes."  This  will 
probably  take  a  number  of  seat-work  periods  to  finish. 
The  child  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  other  pictures 
from  home.  Outline  pictures  which  have  been  made  on 
the  hectograph  may  be  used  or  he  may  trace  around 
cardboard  patterns  of  animals. 

4.  It  should  not  require  too  long  a  period  of  atten- 
tion, as  the  child  does  not  give  attention  to  one  thing 
however  interesting  for  any  great  length  of  time.  This 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  above  example  where  only, 
fifteen  minutes  are  used  in  one  form  of  seat-work.  Seat- 
work  should  always  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  can  be 
entirely  finished  in  the  time  alloted  or  that  a  definite 
part  can  be  finished.  Observation  and  experience  will 
soon  show  the  teacher  the  amount  of'  time  which  should 
be  given  to  the  different  forms  of  seat-work. 

The  problem  is  to  select  types  of  seat-work  which  are 
interesting,  attractive,  and  instructive.  Following  are 
some  suggestions  which  will  fulfill  these  requirements  if 
used  wisely  and  understandingly.  When  seat-work  is 
given  the  directions  should  be  clear  and  definite. 

1.  Tell  the  story  of  the  reading  lesson  by  clay  model- 
ing. In  the  story  of  "The  Little  Red  Hen,"  Chapter  V, 
pages  58  and  59,  the  child  could  mold  a  grain  of  wheat, 
a  hen,  a  cat,  a  rat,  a  pig,  and  a  loaf  of  bread. 

2.  Tell  the  story  of  the  reading  or  language  lesson 
by  free-hand  paper  cutting.  These  are  to  be  made  into 
a  poster  which  will  tell  the  story. 

3.  Cut  and  arrange  magazine  or  outline  pictures  to 
tell  the  story. 

4.  Draw  and  color  pictures  which  will  tell  the  story. 

5.  Tell  the  story  on  the  sand-table  by  planning  and 
making  necessary  articles. 


298  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 


6.  Illustrate  rhymes  and  poems  as  in  suggestions  one, 
two,  three,  four,  and  five. 

7.  Illustrate  by  one  of  the  above* forms  the  part  of 
the  poem  or  story  which  he  likes  best. 

8.  Have  the  child  illustrate  with  pencil,  colored 
crayon,  clay,  or  free-hand  cutting  something  that  hap- 
pened on  the  playground  or  on  the  way  to  school.  Sen- 
tences may  be  written  about  this  event. 

9.  Have  pictures  with  words  to  match  and  have  him 
place  the  words  on  the  proper  picture. 

10.  Give  him  a  picture  with  the  list  of  necessary  words 
for  telling  the  story.  He  should  form  sentences  about 
it  with  the  word  card. 

11.  Sentence  building  may  be  given  using  cards  with 
the  written  or  printed  words.  Place  a  model  on  the 
board  or  have  child  use  a  model  from  the  book. 

12.  Give  each  child  a  pair  of  scissors,  some  paper, 
and  a  list  of  name  words.  Have  him  cut  a  free-hand 
picture  of  the  word  and  place  the  proper  word  on  this 
picture. 

13.  Write  a  simple  question  on  the  board  and  ask 
the  child  to  answer  with  drawings  or  word  cards. 

14.  Place  a  simple  direction  on  the  board  or  on  a 
card  which  tells  the  child  to  make  something;  for  ex- 
ample, "Cut  the  picture  of  a  boy  and  his  kite." 

15.  Give  the  child  a  copy  of  a  simple  rhyme  or  story 
and  allow  him  to  illustrate. 

16.  Give  him  the  copy  of  a  simple  rhyme  or  story 
and  words  for  building  this  rhyme  or  story  and  have 
him  build  it. 

17.  Give  him  the  words  for  building  a  very  familiar 
rhyme  or  story  and  have  him  build,  it  without  a  copy. 

18.  Many  interesting  booklets  or  scrap-books  may  be 


Seat.  Work  299 


made  by  the  cutting  and  pasting  of  magazine  pictures 
or  outline  pictures  made  from  patterns  or  by  the  hecto- 
graph. Paste  a  picture  on  the  outside  of  the  book  with 
proper  explanatory  wording.  For  example,  make  a  book 
representing  the  child's  home.  Let  him  find  the  picture 
of  a  house  which  is  the  most  like  his  own.  The  word- 
ing "MY  HOME"  should  be  just  below  the  picture. 
A  page  represents  a  room  in  the  home.  He  is  to  cut, 
arrange,  and  paste  the  furniture  for  each  room. 

Booklets  of  pets,  circus  animals,  farm  animals,  farm 
tools,  fall  flowers,  fall  birds,  leaves,  "How  We  Are 
Clothed,,,  "How  We  Are  Fed,"  "How  We  Keep  Warm," 
"How  We  Ride,"  and  Noah's  Ark,  may  be  made. 

The  child  will  enjoy  furnishing  a  real  doll  house  made 
of  boxes.  (For  suggestions  see  Chapter  XX,  page  280.) 
This  may  be  either  a  class  or  an  individual  problem. 

Spool  knitting  is  an  interesting  activity.  The  chain  is 
to  be  utilized  in  some  way. 

One  of  the  teacher's  problems  will  be  to  acquire  enough 
seat-work  material  which  is  worth  while  without  too 
great  an  outlay  of.  money.  If  she  will  secure  the  inter- 
est of  the  child  in  the  problem  he  will  bring  many  things 
which  may  be  utilized,  such  as  newspapers,  magazines, 
wrapping  paper,  string,  spools,  tablet  backs,  corn,  acorns, 
etc.  Often  the  local  printing  office  will  allow  the  teacher 
to  take  strips  of  refuse  paper,  or  she  may  buy  "news 
print"  at  a  reasonable  rate.  Colored  paper  may  also 
be  purchased  from  the  printer. 

Often  the  teacher  can  raise  money  for  the  purchase  of 
materials  by  a  little  entertainment.  Other  suggestions 
as  to  material  and  their  use  will  be  found  in  Chapter 
XX,  pages  281  to  283. 

The  care  of  this  seat-work  material  is  an  important 


300  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

part  of  the  program.  If  possible,  the  teacher  should 
have  a  set  of  shelves,  in  which  is  placed  the  different 
materials  in  systematic  order  in  boxes  which  are  plainly 
marked  on  the  ends.  Monitors  may  be  selected  who 
will  care  for  this  material  in  an  orderly  way.  These 
same  monitors  may  attend  to  the  distribution  and  the 
collection  of  this  material  and  thus  relieve  the  teacher 
of  this  mechanical  part  of  the  work. 

She  should  plan  for  her  seat-work  periods  as  care- 
fully as  for  the  regular  lessons.  Her  daily  program 
should  show  exactly  what  the  child  is  to  do  for  every 
period  of  the  day.  Not  only  should  she  know  what  he 
is  to  do  but  she  should  have  all  the  material  ready  and 
arranged  in  systematic  order  so  that  no  unnecessary  time 
or  energy  may  be  expended. 

All  seat-work  should  be  carefully  inspected  as  an  en- 
couragement to  the  child  and  to  prevent  the  formation 
of  habits  of  carelessness   and  idleness. 

REFERENCES 

Dunn,  Educative  Seat  Work 

Holton,  Games,  Seat  Work,  and  Sense  Training,  A.  Flanagan 
Company,  Chicago 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
OPENING  EXERCISES 

The  first  few  minutes  of  the  morning  furnish  the 
key-note  to  the  day.  The  child  often  comes  to  school 
cross  and  irritable  due  to  any  one  of  many  possible 
causes.  It  may  be  that  the  breakfast  was  insufficient, 
poorly  selected,  or  poorly  prepared.  It  may  be  that 
he  has  not  had  a  sufficient  amount  of  sleep  or  that  he 
has  received  a  severe  though  merited  reproof  from  his 
parents.  Bodily  illness  will  also  often  cause  irritability. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  whatever  the  cause,  it  is  often 
possible  to  turn  what  would  otherwise  prove  the  pro- 
verbial "Blue  Monday''  into  a  day  of  joy  and  happiness 
by  a  wise  use  of  these  first  few  minutes. 

One  of  the  most  important  factors  in  a  happy  school- 
room is  the  teacher.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to  sug- 
gest to  her  that  a  smiling,  happy  face  is  perhaps  the 
most  essential  element  in  the  personality  of  the  success- 
ful teacher.  Not  only  should  her  face  be  bright  and 
happy,  but  her  personal  appearance  should  be  as  at- 
tractive as  possible.  This  does  not  mean  expensive  wear- 
ing apparel,  but  that  which  is  well  selected  as  to  quality, 
color,  and  style.  The  hair  should  be  arranged  neatly  and 
attractively. 

Another  important  factor  is  the  appearance  of  the 
room.  The  teacher  should  see  that  it  is  properly  cleaned, 
lighted,  heated,  and  ventilated.     She  should  make  it  as 

301 


302  How  to  Teach  Primary  Grades 

attractive  as  possible  by  a  wise  use  of  flowers,  pictures, 
bookcases,  curtains,  and  the  work  of  the  children.  She 
should  avoid  giving  the  room  a  cluttered  appearance  by 
the  too  promiscuous  use  of  these  articles.  The  table 
or  desk  should  be  made  attractive  with  a  cloth  or  scarf 
and  a  flower  vase. 

As  each  child  enters  the  room  he  should  be  greeted 
with  a  cheerful  good-morning  (with  perhaps  an  addi- 
tional word  of  greeting).  If  the  child  arrives  before  the 
opening  hour,  he  should  be  given  some  quiet,  though  in- 
teresting, form  of  activity  until  the  opening  hour.  If  he 
is  allowed  to  romp  and  engage  in  noisy  talking  while  in 
the  schoolroom,  it  not  only  makes  a  bad  beginning  for 
the  day  but  helps  to  create  a  harmful  schoolroom  atmos- 
phere. 

SUBJECT-MATTER 

The  morning  exercises  may  consist  of  Bible  stories, 
Bible  verses,  psalms,  prayer,  poems,  stories,  songs,  les- 
sons in  ethics,  hygiene,  and  sanitation. 

Bible  Stories.  Unless  there  is  a  state  law  prohibiting 
the  use  of  the  Bible,  this  should  form  a  regular  part  of 
the  morning  exercises.  In  the  primary  grades  it  should 
take  the  form  of  Bible  stories,  simple  verses,  and  psalms. 
These  stories  may  be  found  in  books  of  Bible  stories  for 
children.  Probably  a  better  source  will  be  the  Teacher's 
book  for  the  Beginners  and  the  Primary  Department  of 
a  Graded  Sunday  School.  These  are  well  adapted  to  the 
understanding  of  the  little  child  and  are  simple  and 
interesting.  In  connection  with  these  books,  pictures 
which  illustrate  these  stories  may  be  procured.  These 
will  add  much  to  the  interest.    These  books  and  pictures 


Opening  Exercises  303 

may  be  bought  from  the  publishing  house  of  any  of  the 
leading  religious  denominations. 

Prayer.  If  not  prohibited  by  a  state  law,  the  prayer 
should  also  form  a  regular  part  of  the  morning  exercise. 
Should  there  be  a  law  prohibiting  it,  the  prayer  may  be 
used  in  the  form  of  a  song.  The  following  prayer  is 
very  appropriate  for  use  with  the  little  child : 

"Our  Father,  we  thank  Thee  for  the  night, 
And  for  the  morning  light, 
For  food  and  rest  and  tender  care, 
And  all  that  makes  the  world  so  fair. 
Help  us  to  do  the  things  we  should, 
To  be  to  others  kind  and  good. 
In  all  we  do,  in  all  we  say  in  work  or  play, 
Make  us  more  loving  every  day. — Amen." 

If  the  teacher  prefers  she  may  use  the  Lord's  prayer. 

Songs.  The  singing  of  a  bright,  happy  song  makes  a 
good  beginning  for  a  day  inasmuch  as  it  will  often  drive 
away  the  feeling  of  impatience  or  worry.  It  will  also  help 
the  teacher  and  the  children  to  take  up  the  schoolroom 
activities  with  a  better  mental  attitude.  These  songs 
may  be  either  secular  or  religious  in  form.  For  the 
religious  songs,  help  may  again  be  found  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Beginners  or  Primary  Department  of  a 
Graded  Sunday  School.  These  songs  are  simple,  and 
interesting  and  especially  adapted  to  the  comprehension 
of  the  small  child.  "Songs  for  Little  Children,"  by 
Francis  W.  Danielson,  published  by  The  Pilgrim  Press, 
Boston,  contains  suitable  songs  both  secular  and  religious 
in  content. 


304  How  to  Teacfi  Primary  Grades 


If  a  regular  music  period  is  provided  in  the  daily 
schedule,  the  songs  taught  in  this  period  are  utilized  in 
the  morning  exercises.  If  there  is  no  music  period,  the 
song  should  be  taught  as  a  part  of  these  exercises. 

Ethics.  Little  talks,  stories,  and  exercises  to  help 
establish  the  social  habits  of  thoughtfulness,  helpfulness, 
courtesy,  sympathy,  truthfulness,  etc.,  may  form  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  morning  exercise.  These  should  not 
be  "preachy"  in  character  and  should  be  used  in  a  natural, 
interesting  way.  This  should  be  followed  up  through  the 
day  by  suggestions  and  by  praise  of  any  action  which 
is  of  this  character.  Many  suggestions  for  these  talks, 
stories,  and  exercises  should  be  found  in  primary  mag- 
azines of  education,  children's  magazines,  and  children's 
books. 

Hygiene  and  Sanitation.  This  morning  period  offers 
an  excellent  opportunity  for  giving  the  child  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  laws  of  health  and  of  sanitation.  These 
may  be  presented  through  natural  and  interesting  little 
stories,  talks,  and  exercises.  Material  for  these  exercises 
should  be  found  in  primary  magazines  of  education, 
physical  culture  magazines  and  books  on  hygiene  and 
sanitation. 

Poems  and  Stories.  The  morning  exercises  also  offer 
an  excellent  opportunity  for  the  reciting  of  the  poems 
and  the  reproduction  of  the  stories  learned  in  the  litera- 
ture lessons.  This  furnishes  motive  for  the  learning  of 
these  poems  and  stories  and  gives  additional  practice  in 
appearing  before  an  audience. 


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